B.  K.  N.  S. 


-FELLOWSHIP"    REFERENCE    LIBRARY 


VOLUME- 


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Or ace  E.  Barnard 


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HOW   TO  TEACH 


■Th^>y^o 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &   CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


HOW   TO    TEACH 


BY 

GEORGE   DRAYTON   STRAYER 

AND 

NAOMI    NORSWORTHY 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1920 

All  rights  reserve^ 


Li" 


< 


Copyright,  1917, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  February,  1917. 

EDUCATION  DePT. 


Nnrinooli  Jlreaa 

J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  MasB.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

The  art  of  teaching  is  based  primarily  upon  the  science  of 
psychology.  In  this  book  the  authors  have  sought  to  make 
clear  the  principles  of  psychology  which  are  involved  in  teach- 
ing, and  to  show  definitely  their  application  in  the  work  of  the 
classroom.  The  book  has  been  written  in  language  as  free 
from  technical  terms  as  is  possible. 

In  a  discussion  of  the  methods  of  teaching  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  the  ends  or  aims  involved,  as  well  as  the  process. 
The  authors  have,  on  this  account,  included  a  chapter  on  the 
work  of  the  teacher,  in  which  is  discussed  the  aims  of  educa- 
tion. The  success  or  failure  of  the  work  of  a  teacher  is  deter- 
mined by  the  changes  which  are  brought  to  pass  in  the  children 
who  are  being  taught.  This  book,  therefore,  includes  a  chapter 
on  the  measurement  of  the  achievements  of  children.  Through- 
out the  book  the  discussion  of  the  art  of  teaching  is  always 
modified  by  an  acceptance  upon  the  part  of  the  writers  of  the 
social  purpose  of  education.  The  treatment  of  each  topic  will 
be  found  to  be  based  upon  investigations  and  researches  in  the 
fields  of  psychology  and  education  which  involve  the  measure- 
ment of  the  achievements  of  children  and  of  adults  under  vary- 
ing conditions.  Wherever  possible,  the  relation  between  the 
principle  of  teaching  laid  down  and  the  scientific  inquiry  upon 
which  it  is  based  is  indicated. 

Any  careful  study  of  the  mental  life  and  development  of  chil- 
dren reveals  at  the  same  time  the  unity  and  the  diversity  of  the 
process  involved.     For  the  sake  of  definiteness  and  clearness, 


vi  PREFACE 

the  authors  have  differentiated  between  types  of  mental  activity 
and  the  corresponding  types  of  classroom  exercises.  They 
have,  at  the  same  time,  sought  to  make  clear  the  interde- 
pendence of  the  various  aspects  of  teaching  method  and  the 
unity  involved  in  mental  development. 

GEORGE   DRAYTON   STRAYER. 
NAOMI   NORSWORTHY. 
November  15,  1916.  * 


^'^^  7 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I.    The  Work  of  the  Teacher i 

II.     Original    Nature,   the    Capital  with  which    Teachers 

Work 13 

III      Attention  and  Interest  in  Teaching         .        .        .        •  34 

IV.    The  Formation  of  Habits 55 

V.     How  TO  Memorize 73 

VI.     The  Teacher's  Use  of  the  Imagination     ....  92 

VII.     How  Thinking  may  be  Stimulated 104 

VIII.     Appreciation,  an  Important  Element  in  Education        .  126 

IX.     The  Meaning  of  Play  in  Education 138 

X.    The  Significance   of    Individual   Differences   for    the 

Teacher 151 

XI.    The  Development  of  Moral  Social  Conduct  .        .        .171 

XII.     Transfer  of  Training 190- 

XIII.  Types  of  Classroom  Exercises 200 

XIV.  How  TO  Study 220 

XV.     Measuring  the  Achievements  of  Children       .        .        .  234 


vii 


HOW    TO    TEACH 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  TEACHER 

Education  is  a  group  enterprise.  We  establish  schools  in 
which  we  seek  to  develojp  whatever  capacities  or  abilities  the 
individual  may  possess  in  order  that  he  may  become  intelli- 
gently active  for  the  common  good.  Schools  do  not  exist  pri- 
marily for  the  individual,  but,  rather,  for  the  group  of  which  he  is 
a 'member.  Individual  growth  and  development  are  significant 
in  terms  of  their  meaning  for  the  welfare  of  the  whole  group. 
We  believe  that  the  greatest  opportunity  for  the  individual, 
as  well  as  his  greatest  satisfaction,  are  secured  only  when  he 
works  with  others  for  the  common  welfare.  In  the  discussions 
which  follow  we  are  concerned  not  simply  with  the  individual's 
development,  but  also  with  the  necessity  for  inhibitions.  There 
are  traits  or  activities  which  develop  normally,  but  which  are 
from  the  social  point  of  view  undesirable.  It  is  quite  as  much 
the  work  of  the  teacher  to  know  how  to  provide  for  the  inhibition 
of  the  type  of  activity  which  is  socially  undesirable,  or  how  to 
substitute  for  such  reactions  other  forms  of  expression  which 
are  worthy,  as  it  is  to  stimulate  those  types  of  activity  which 
promise  a  contribution  to  the  common  good.  It  is  assumed  that 
the  aim  of  education  can  be  expressed  most  satisfactorily  in 
terms  of  social  efficiency. 

An  acceptance  of  the  aim  of  education  stated  in  terms  of 
social  efficiency  leads  us  to  discard  other  statements  of  aim 


2  HOW  TO  TEACH 

which  have  been  more  or  less  current.  Chief  among  these 
aims,  or  statements  of  aim,  are  the  following:  (i)  culture;  (2) 
the  harmonious  development  of  the  capacities  or  abilities  of  the 
individual;  (3)  preparing  an  individual  to  make  a  living;  (4) 
knowledge.  We  will  examine  these  aims  briefly  before  discuss- 
ing at  length  the  impKcations  of  the  social  aim. 

Those  who  declare  that  it  is  the  aim  of  education  to  develop 
men  and  women  of  culture  vary  in  the  content  which  they  give 
to  the  term  culture.  It  is  conceivable  that  the  person  of  culture 
is  one  who,  by  virtue  of  his  education,  has  come  to  understand 
and  appreciate  the  many  aspects  of  the  social  environment  in 
which  he  lives ;  that  he  is  a  man  of  intelligence,  essentially  rea- 
sonable; and  that  he  is  willing  and  able  to  devote  himself  to 
the  common  good.  It  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  the  term 
culture,  as  commonly  used,  is  interpreted  much  more  narrowly. 
For  many  people  culture  is  synonymous  with  knowledge  or  in- 
formation, and  is  not  interpreted  to  involve  preparation  for 
active  participation  in  the  work  of  the  world.  Still  others 
think  of  the  person  of  culture  as  one  who  has  a  type  or  kind 
of  training  which  separates  him  from  the  ordinary  man.  A  more 
or  less  popular  notion  of  the  man  of  culture  pictures  him  as  one 
living  apart  from  those  who  think  through  present-day  problems 
and  who  devote  themselves  to  their  solution.  It  seems  best, 
on  account  of  this  variation  in  interpretation,  as  well  as  on 
account  of  the  unfortunate  meaning  sometimes  attached  to  the 
term,  to  discard  this  statement  of  the  aim  of  education. 

The  difficulty  with  a  statement  of  aim  in  terms  of  the  har- 
monious development  of  the  abilities  or  capacities  possessed  by 
the  individual  is  found  in  the  lack  of  any  criterion  by  which  we 
may  determine  the  desirability  of  any  particular  kind  of  develop- 
ment or  action.  We  may  well  ask  for  what  purpose  are  the 
capacities  or  abiHties  of  the  individual  to  be  developed.  It  is 
possible  to  develop  an  ability  or  capacity  for  lying,  for  stealing, 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  TEACHER  3 

or  for  fighting  without  a  just  cause.  What  society  has  a  right 
to  expect  and  to  demand  of  our  schools  is  that  they  develop  or 
nourish  certain  tendencies  to  behave,  and  that  they  strive 
earnestly  to  eliminate  or  to  have  inhibited  other  tendencies 
just  as  marked.  Another  difficulty  with  the  statement  of  aim 
in  terms  of  the  harmonious  development  of  the  capacities  is 
found  in  the  difficulty  of  interpreting  what  is  meant  by  harmoni- 
ous development.  Do  we  mean  equal  development  of  each  and 
every  capacity,  or  do  we  seek  to  develop  each  capacity  to  the 
maximum  of  the  individual's  possibility  of  training?  Are  we 
to  try  to  secure  equal  development  in  all  directions?  Of  one 
thing  we  can  be  certain.  We  cannot  secure  equality  in  achieve- 
ment among  individuals  who  vary  in  capacity.  One  boy  may 
make  a  good  mechanic,  another  a  successful  business  man,  and 
still  another  a  musician.  It  is  only  as  we  read  into  the  state- 
ment of  harmonious  development  meanings  which  do  not  ap- 
pear upon  the  surface,  that  we  can  accept  this  statement  as  a 
satisfactory  wording  of  the  aim  of  education. 
.  The  narrow  utilitarian  statement  of  aim  that  asserts 
that  the  purpose  of  education  is  to  enable  people  to  make 
a  living  neglects  to  take  account  of  the  necessity  for  social  co- 
operation. The  difficulty  with  this  statement  of  aim  is  that  it 
is  too  narrow.  We  do  hope  by  means  of  education  to  help 
people  to  make  a  living,  but  we  ought  also  to  be  concerned  with 
the  kind  of  a  life  they  lead.  They  ought  not  to  make  a  living 
by  injuring  or  exploiting  others.  They  ought  to  be  able  to 
enjoy  the  nobler  pleasures  as  well  as  to  make  enough 
money  to  buy  food,  clothing,  shelter,  and  the  like.  The  bread- 
and-butter  aim  breaks  down  as  does  the  all-around  development 
aim  because  it  fails  to  consider  the  individual  in  relation  to  the 
social  group  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

To  declare  that  knowledge  is  the  aim  of  education  is  to  ignore 
the  issue  of  the  relative  worth  of  that  which  we  call  knowledge. 


4  HOW  TO  TEACH 

No  one  may  know  all.  What,  then,  from  among  all  of  the  facts 
or  principles  which  are  available  are  we  to  select  and  what  are 
we  to  reject?  The  knowledge  aim  gives  us  no  satisfactory 
answer.  We  are  again  thrown  back  upon  the  question  of  pur- 
pose. Knowledge  we  must  have,  but  for  the  individual  who  is 
to  live  in  our  modern,  industrial,  democratic  society  some 
knowledges  are  more  important  than  others.  Society  cannot 
aiford  to  permit  the  school  to  do  anything  less  than  provide 
that  equipment  in  knowledge,  in  skill,  in  ideal,  or  in  apprecia- 
tion which  promises  to  develop  an  individual  who  will  contribute 
to  social  progress,  one  who  will  find  his  own  greatest  satisfaction 
in  working  for  the  common  good. 

In  seeking  to  relate  the  aim  of  education  to  the  school  ac- 
tivities of  boys  and  girls,  it  is  necessary  to  inquire  concerning 
the  ideals  or  purposes  which  actuate  them  in  their  regular  school 
work.  Ideals  of  service  may  be  gradually  developed,  and  may 
eventually  come  to  control  in  some  measure  the  activities  of 
boys  and  girls,  but  these  ideals  do  not  normally  develop  in 
a  school  situation  in  which  competition  is  the  dominating  factor. 
We  may  discuss  at  great  length  the  desirability  of  working  for 
others,  and  we  may  teach  many  precepts  which  look  in  the  direc- 
tion of  service,  and  still  fail  to  achieve  the  purpose  for  which  our 
schools  exist.  An  overemphasis  upon  marks  and  distinctions, 
and  a  lack  of  attention  to  the  opportunities  which  the  school 
offers  for  helpfulness  and  cooperation,  have  often  resulted  in  the 
development  of  an  individualistic  attitude  almost  entirely 
opposed  to  the  purpose  or  aim  of  education  as  we  commonly 
accept  it. 

There  is  need  for  much  reorganization  in  our  schools  in  the 
light  of  our  professed  aim.  There  are  only  two  places  in  our 
whole  school  system  where  children  are  commonly  so  seated 
that  it  is  easy  for  them  to  work  in  cooperation  with  each  other. 
In  the  kindergarten,  in  the  circle,  or  at  the  tables,  children  nor- 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  TEACHER  5 

mally  discuss  the  problems  in  which  they  are  interested,  and 
help  each  other  in  their  work.  In  the  seminar  room  for  graduate 
students  in  a  university,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  men  work- 
ing together  for  the  solution  of  problems  in  which  they  have  a 
common  interest.  In  most  classrooms  in  elementary  and  in 
high  schools,  and  even  in  colleges,  boys  and  girls  are  seated  in 
rows,  the  one  back  of  the  other,  with  little  or  no  opportunity  for 
communication  or  cooperation.  Indeed,  helping  one's  neighbor 
has  often  been  declared  against  the  rule  by  teachers.  It  is  true 
that  pupils  must  in  many  cases  work  as  individuals  for  the  sake 
of  the  attainment  of  skill,  the  acquirement  of  knowledge,  or  of 
methods  of  work,  but  a  school  which  professes  to  develop  ideals 
of  service  must  provide  on  every  possible  occasion  situations 
in  which  children  work  in  cooperation  with  each  other,  and  in 
which  they  measure  their  success  in  terms  of  the  contribution 
which  they  make  toward  the  achievement  of  a  common  end. 

The  socially  efficient  individual  must  not  only  be  actuated 
by  ideals  of  service,  but  must  in  the  responses  which  he  makes 
to  social  demands  be  governed  by  his  own  careful  thinking,  or 
by  his  ability  to  distinguish  from  among  those  who  would  influ- 
ence him  one  whose  solution  of  the  problem  presented  is  based 
upon  careful  investigation  or  inquiry.  Especially  is  it  true  in  a 
democratic  society  that  the  measure  of  the  success  of  our  edu- 
cation is  found  in  the  degree  to  which  we  develop  the  scientific 
attitude.  Even  those  who  are  actuated  by  noble  motives  may, 
if  they  trust  to  their  emotions,  to  their  prejudices,  or  to  those 
superstitions  which  are  commonly  accepted,  engage  in  activities 
which  are  positively  harmful  to  the  social  group  of  which  they 
are  members.  Our  schools  should  strive  to  encourage  the  spirit 
of  inquiry  and  investigation. 

A  large  part  of  the  work  in  most  elementary  schools  and  high 
schools  consists  in  having  boys  and  girls  repeat  what  they  have 
heard  or  read.     It  is  true  that  such  accumulation  of  facts  may. 


6  HOW  TO  TEACH 

in  some  cases,  either  at  the  time  at  which  they  are  learned,  or 
later,  be  used  as  the  basis  for  thinking ;  but  a  teacher  may  feel 
satisfied  that  she  has  contributed  largely  toward  the  develop- 
ment of  the  scientific  spirit  upon  the  part  of  children  only  when 
this  inquiring  attitude  is  commonly  found  in  her  classroom. 
The  association  of  ideas  which  will  result  from  an  honest  at- 
tempt upon  the  part  of.  boys  and  girls  to  find  the  solution  of  a 
real  problem  will  furnish  the  very  best  possible  basis  for  the 
recall  of  the  facts  or  information  which  may  be  involved.  The 
attempt  to  remember  pages  of  history  or  of  geography,  or  the 
facts  of  chemistry  or  of  physics,  however  well  they  may  be 
organized  in  the  text-book,  is  usually  successful  only  until 
the  examination  period  is  passed.  Children  who  have  engaged 
in  this  type  of  activity  quite  commonly  show  an  appalling  lack 
of  knowledge  of  the  subjects  which  they  have  studied  a  very 
short  time  after  they  have  satisfied  the  examination  require- 
ment. The  same  amount  of  energy  devoted  to  the  solution 
of  problems  in  which  children  may  be  normally  interested  may 
be  expected  not  only  to  develop  some  appreciation  of  scientific 
method  in  the  fields  in  which  they  have  worked,  but  also  to 
result  in  a  control  of  knowledge  or  a  memory  of  facts  that  will 
last  over  a  longer  period  of  time. 

Recitations  should  be  places  where  children  meet  for  the 
discussion  of  problems  which  are  vital  to  them.  The  question 
by  the  pupil  should  be  as  common  as  the  question  by  the  teacher. 
Laboratory  periods  should  not  consist  of  following  directions, 
but  rather  in  undertaking,  in  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  real  experi- 
ments. We  may  not  hope  that  an  investigating  or  inquiring 
turn  of  mind  encouraged  in  school  will  always  be  found  operating 
in  the  solution  of  problems  which  occur  outside  of  school,  but 
the  school  which  insists  merely  upon  memory  and  upon  following 
instructions  may  scarcely  claim  to  have  made  any  considerable 
contribution  to  the  equipment  of  citizens  of  a  democracy  who 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  TEACHER  7 

should  solve  their  common  problems  in  terms  of  the  evidence 
presented.  The  unthinking  acceptance  of  the  words  of  the 
book  or  the  statement  of  the  teacher  prepares  the  way  for  the 
blind  following  of  the  boss,  for  faith  in  the  demagogue,  or  even 
for  acceptance  of  the  statements  of  the  quack. 

The  ideal  school  situation  is  one  in  which  the  spirit  of  inquiry 
and  investigation  is  constantly  encouraged  and  in  which  children 
are  developing  ideals  of  service  by  virtue  of  their  activity.  A 
high  school  class  in  English  literature  in  which  children  are 
at  work  in  small  groups,  asking  each  other  questions  and  helping 
each  other  in  the  solution  of  their  problems,  seems  to  the  writer 
to  afford  unusual  opportunity  for  the  realization  of  the  social 
aim  of  education.  A  first  grade  class  in  beginning  reading,  in 
which  the  stronger  children  seek  to  help  those  who  are  less 
able,  involves  something  more  significant  in  education  than 
merely  the  command  of  the  tool  we  call  reading.  A  teacher  of  a 
class  in  physics  who  suggested  to  his  pupils  that  they  find  out 
which  was  the  more  economical  way  to  heat  their  homes,  — 
with  hot  air,  with  steam,  or  with  hot  water,  —  evidently  hoped 
to  have  them  use  whatever  power  of  investigation  they  pos- 
sessed, as  well  as  to  have  them  come  to  understand  and  to  remem- 
ber the  principles  of  physics  which  were  involved.  In  many 
schools  the  cooperation  of  children  in  the  preparation  of  school 
plays,  or  school  festivals,  in  the  writing  and  printing  of  school 
papers,  in  the  participation  in  the  school  assembly,  in  the  mak- 
ing of  shelves,  tables,  or  other  school  equipment,  in  the  working 
for  community  betterment  with  respect  to  clean  streets  and  the 
like,  may  be  considered  even  more  significant  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  realization  of  the  social  aim  of  education  than  are 
the  recitations  in  which  they  are  commonly  engaged. 

We  have  emphasized  thus  far  the  meaning  of  the  social  aim 
of  education  in  terms  of  methods  of  work  upon  the  part  of  pupils. 
It  is  important  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  materials 


8  HOW  TO  TEACH 

or  content  of  education  are  also  determined  by  the  same  con- 
sideration of  purposes.  If  we  really  accept  the  idea  of  partici- 
pation upon  the  part  of  children  in  modern  social  life  as  the  pur- 
pose of  education,  we  must  include  in  our  courses  of  study  only 
such  subject  matter  as  may  be  judged  to  contribute  toward 
the  realization  of  this  aim.  We  must,  of  course,  provide  chil- 
dren with  the  tools  of  investigation  or  of  inquiry;  but  their 
importance  should  not  be  overemphasized,  and  in  their  acquire- 
ment significant  experiences  with  respect  to  life  activities  should 
dominate,  rather  than  the  mere  acquisition  of  the  tool.  Begin- 
ning reading,  for  example,  is  important  not  merely  from  the 
standpoint  of  learning  to  read.  The  teaching  of  beginning 
reading  should  involve  the  enlarging  and  enriching  of  experience. 
Thought  getting  is  of  primary  importance  for  little  children  who 
are  to  learn  to  read,  and  the  recognition  of  symbols  is  important 
only  in  so  far  as  they  contribute  to  this  end.  The  best  reading 
books  no  longer  print  meaningless  sentences  for  children  to  de- 
cipher. Mother  Goose  rhymes,  popular  stories  and  fables, 
language  reading  lessons,  in  which  children  relate  their  own  ex- 
perience for  the  teacher  to  print  or  write  on  the  board,  satisfy 
the  demand  for  content  and  aid,  by  virtue  of  the  interest  which 
is  advanced,  in  the  mastering  of  the  symbols. 

It  is,  of  course,  necessary  for  one  who  would  understand 
modern  social  conditions  or  problems,  to  know  of  the  past  out 
of  which  our  modern  life  has  developed.  It  is  also  necessary 
for  one  who  would  understand  the  problems  of  one  community, 
or  of  one  nation,  to  know,  in  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  of  the  experi- 
ences of  other  peoples.  History  and  geography  furnish  a  back- 
ground, without  which  our  current  problems  could  not  be  rea- 
sonably attacked.  Literature  and  science,  the  study  of  the 
fine  arts,  and  of  our  social  institutions,  all  become  significant  j 
in  proportion  as  they  make  possible  contributions,  by  the  indi-  | 
vidual  who  has  been  educated,  to  the  common  good. 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  TEACHER  9 

Any  proper  interpretation  of  the  social  purpose  of  education 
leads  inevitably  to  the  conclusion  that  much  that  we  have 
taught  is  of  very  little  significance.  Processes  in  arithmetic 
which  are  not  used  in  modern  life  have  little  or  no  worth  for  the 
great  majority  of  boys  and  girls.  Partnership  settlements 
involving  time,  exact  interest,  the  extraction  of  cube  and  of 
square  roots,  partial  payments,  and  many  of  the  problems  in 
mensuration,  might  well  be  omitted  from  all  courses  of  study 
in  arithmetic.  Many  of  the  unimportant  dates  in  history  and 
much  of  the  locational  geography  should  disappear  in  order  that 
a  better  appreciation  of  the  larger  social  movements  can  be 
secured,  or  in  order  that  the  laws  which  control  in  nature  may 
be  taught.  In  English,  any  attempt  to  realize  the  aim  which 
we  have  in  mind  would  lay  greater  stress  upon  the  accomplish- 
ment of  children  in  speaking  and  writing  our  language,  and  rela- 
tively less  upon  the  rules  of  grammar. 

It  may  well  be  asked  how  our  conception  of  aim  can  be  re- 
lated to  the  present  tendency  to  offer  a  variety  of  courses  of 
instruction,  or  to  provide  different  types  of  schools.  The  answer 
is*  found  in  an  understanding  and  appreciation  of  the  fact  that 
children  vary  tremendously  in  ability,  and  that  the  largest 
contribution  by  each  individual  to  the  welfare  of  the  whole 
group  can  be  made  only  when  each  is  trained  in  the  field  for 
which  his  capacity  fits  him.  The  movement  for  the  develop- 
ment of  vocational  education  means,  above  all  else,  an  attempt 
to  train  all  members  of  the  group  to  the  highest  possible  degree 
of  efficiency,  instead  of  offering  a  common  education  which, 
though  liberal  in  its  character,  is  actually  neglected  or  refused 
by  a  large  part  of  our  population. 

Our  interest  in  the  physical  welfare  of  children  is  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  no  individual  may  make  the  most  signifi- 
cant contribution  to  the  common  good  who  does  not  enjoy  a 
maximum  of  physical  efficiency.     The  current  emphasis  upon 


lO  HOW  TO  TEACH 

moral  training  can  be  understood  when  we  accept  that  concep- 
tion of  morality  which  measures  the  individual  in  terms  of  his 
contribution  to  the  welfare  of  others.  However  important  it 
may  be  that  individuals  be  restrained  or  that  they  inhibit 
those  impulses  which  might  lead  to  anti-social  activity,  of  even 
greater  importance  must  be  the  part  actually  played  by  each 
member  of  the  social  group  in  the  development  of  the  common 
welfare. 

If  we  think  of  the  problems  of  teaching  in  terms  of  habits 
to  be  fixed,  we  must  ask  ourselves  are  these  habits  desirable 
or  necessary  for  an  individual  who  is  to  work  as  a  member 
of  the  social  group.  If  we  consider  the  problem  of  teaching 
from  the  standpoint  of  development  in  intelligence,  we  must 
constantly  seek  to  present  problems  which  are  worth  while, 
not  simply  from  the  standpoint  of  the  curiosity  which  they 
arouse,  but  also  on  account  of  their  relation  to  the  life  ac- 
tivities with  which  our  modern  world  is  concerned.  We  must 
seek  to  develop  the  power  of  appreciating  that  which  is  noble 
and  beautiful  primarily  because  the  highest  efficiency  can  be 
secured  only  by  those  who  use  their  time  in  occupations  which 
are  truly  recreative  and  not  enervating. 

As  we  seek  to  understand  the  problem  of  teaching  as  deter- 
mined by  the  normal  mental  development  of  boys  and  girls, 
we  must  have  in  mind  constantly  the  use  to  which  their  capac- 
ities and  abilities  are  to  be  put.  Any  adequate  recognition  of 
the  social  purpose  of  education  suggests  the  necessity  for  elimi- 
nating, as  far  as  possible,  that  type  of  action  which  is  socially 
undesirable,  while  we  strive  for  the  development  of  those  capac- 
ities which  mean  at  least  the  possibility  of  contribution  to  the 
common  good.  We  study  the  principles  of  teaching  in  order 
that  we  may  better  adapt  ourselves  to  the  children's  possibilities 
of  learning,  but  we  must  keep  in  mind  constantly  that  kind 
of  learning  and  those  methods  of  work  which  look  to  the  develop- 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  TEACHER  ii 

merit  of  socially  efficient  boys  and  girls.  We  must  seek  to  pro- 
vide situations  which  are  in  themselves  significant  in  our  modern 
social  life  as  the  subject  matter  with  which  children  may  struggle 
in  accomplishing  their  individual  development.  We  need  con- 
stantly to  have  in  mind  the  ideal  of  school  work  which  will  value 
most  highly  opportunities  for  cooperation  and  for  contribution 
to  the  common  good  upon  the  part  of  children,  which  are  in  the 
last  analysis  entirely  like  the  situations  in  which  older  people 
contribute  to  social  progress.  More  and  more  we  must  seek 
to  develop  the  type  of  pupil  who  knows  the  meaning  of  duty 
and  who  gladly  recognizes  his  obligations  to  a  social  group  which 
is  growing  larger  with  each  new  experience  and  each  new  oppor- 
tunity. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  would  you  not  be  satisfied  with  a  statement  of  the  aim  of 
education  which  was  expressed  in  terms  of  the  harmonious  development 
of  an  individual's  abilities  and  capacities? 

2.  Suggest  any  part  of  the  courses  of  study  now  in  force  in  your  school 
system  the  omission  of  which  would  be  in  accordance  with  the  social  aim 
of  education. 

3.  Name  any  subjects  or  parts  of  subjects  which  might  be  added  for 
the  sake  of  realizing  the  aim  of  education. 

4.  How  may  a  teacher  who  insists  upon  having  children  ask  permission 
before  they  move  in  the  room  interfere  with  the  realization  of  the  social 
aim  of  education  ? 

5.  Can  you  name  any  physical  habits  which  may  be  considered  socially 
undesirable?     Desirable? 

6.  What  is  the  significance  of  pupil  participation  in  school  government? 

7.  How  does  the  teacher  who  stands  behind  his  desk  at  the  front  of  the 
room  interfere  with  the  development  of  the  right  social  attitude  upon  the 
part  of  pupils  ? 

8.  Why  is  the  desire  to  excel  one's  own  previous  record  preferable  to 
striving  for  the  highest  mark  ? 

9.  In  one  elementary  school,  products  of  the  school  garden  were  sold 
and  from  the  funds  thus  secured  apparatus  for  the  playground  was  bought. 
In  another  school,  children  sold  the  vegetables  and  kept  the  money.     Which, 


12  HOW  TO  TEACH 

in  your  judgment,  was  the  most  worth  while  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
social  development  of  boys  and  girls  ? 

10.  A  teacher  of  Latin  had  children  collect  words  of  Latin  origin,  refer- 
ences to  Latin  characters,  and  even  advertisements  in  which  Latin  words 
or  literary  references  were  to  be  found.  The  children  in  the  class  were 
enthusiastic  in  making  these  collections,  and  considerable  interest  was 
added  to  the  work  in  Latin.  Are  you  able  to  discover  in  the  exercise  any 
other  value  ? 

11.  Describe  some  teaching  in  which  you  have  recently  engaged,  or 
which  you  have  observed,  in  which  the  methods  of  work  employed  by 
teacher  and  pupils  seemed  to  you  to  contribute  to  a  realization  of  the 
social  purpose  of  education. 

12.  How  can  a  reading  lesson  in  the  sixth  grade,  or  a  history  lesson  in 
the  high  school,  be  conducted  to  make  children  feel  that  they  are  doing  some- 
thing for  the  whole  group  ? 

13.  In  what  activities  may  children  engage  outside  of  school  which  may 
count  toward  the  betterment  of  the  community  in  which  they  live  ? 


II 

ORIGINAL   NATURE,    THE    CAPITAL   WITH    WHICH 
TEACHERS   WORK 

After  deciding  upon  the  aims  of  education,  the  goals  towards 
which  all  teaching  must  strive,  the  fundamental  question  to 
be  answered  is,  *'What  have  we  to  work  with?"  ''What  is  the 
makeup  with  which  children  start  in  life?"  Given  a  certain 
nature,  certain  definite  results  are  possible;  but  if  the  nature 
is  different,  the  results  must  of  necessity  differ.  The  possibihty 
of  education  or  of  teaching  along  any  line  depends  upon  the 
presence  of  an  original  nature  which  possesses  corresponding 
abilities.  The  development  of  intellect,  of  character,  of  inter- 
est, or  of  any  other  trait  depends  absolutely  upon  the  presence 
in  human  beings  of  capacity  for  growth  or  development.  What 
the  child  inherits,  his  original  nature,  is  the  capital  with  which 
education  must  work ;  beyond  the  limits  which  are  determined 
by  inheritance  education  cannot  go. 

All  original  nature  is  in  terms  of  a  nervous  system.  What 
a  child  inherits  is  not  ideas,  or  feelings,  or  habits,  as  such,  but 
a  nervous  system  whose  correlate  is  human  intelhgence  and 
emotion.  Just  what  relationship  exists  between  the  action 
of  the  nervous  system  and  consciousness  or  intellect  or  emotion 
is  still  an  open  question  and  need  not  be  discussed  here.  One 
thing  seems  fairly  certain,  that  the  original  of  any  individual  is 
bound  up  in  some  way  with  the  kind  of  nervous  system  he  has 
inherited.  What  we  have  in  common,  as  a  human  race,  of 
imagination,  or  reason,  or  tact,  or  skill  is  correlated  in  some 

13 


14  HOW  TO  TEACH 

fashion  to  the  inheritance  of  a  human  nervous  system.  What 
we  have  as  individual  abihties,  which  distinguish  us  from  our 
fellows,  depends  primarily  upon  our  family  inheritance.  Cer- 
tain traits  such  as  interest  in  people,  and  accuracy  in  perception 
of  details,  seem  to  be  dependent  upon  the  sex  inheritance.  All 
traits,  whether  racial,  or  family,  or  sex,  are  inherited  in  terms  of 
a  plastic  nervous  system. 

The  racial  inheritance,  the  capital  which  all  normal  children 
bring  into  the  world,  is  usually  discussed  under  several  heads : 
reflexes,  physiological  actions,  impulsive  actions,  instincts, 
capacities,  etc.,  the  particular  heads  chosen  varying  with  the 
author.  They  all  depend  for  their  existence  upon  the  fact 
that  certain  bonds  of  connection  are  performed  in  the  nervous 
system.  Just  what  this  connection  is  which  is  found  between 
the  nerve  cells  is  still  open  to  question.  It  may  be  chemical 
or  it  may  be  electrical.  We  know  it  is  not  a  growing  together 
of  the  neurones,^  but  further  than  that  nothing  is  definitely 
known.  That  there  are  very  definite .  pathways  of  discharge 
developed  by  the  laws  of  inner  growth  and  independent  of  indi- 
vidual learning,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  This  of  course  means 
that  in  the  early  days  of  a  child's  Hfe,  and  later  in  so  far  as  he  is 
governed  by  these  inborn  tendencies,  his  conduct  is  machine- 
like and  blind  —  with  no  purpose  and  no  consciousness  control- 
ling or  initiating   the   responses.     Only   after   experience   and 

^  The  nervous  system  is  composed  of  units  of  structure  called  neurones  or  nerve 
cells.  *Tf  we  could  see  exactly  the  structure  of  the  brain  itself,  we  should  find  it 
to  consist  of  millions  of  similar  neurones  each  resembling  a  bit  of  string  frayed  out 
at  both  ends  and  here  and  there  along  its  course.  So  also  the  nerves  going  out  to 
the  muscles  are  simply  bundles  of  such  neurones,  each  of  which  by  itself  is  a  thread- 
like connection  between  the  cells  of  the  spinal  cord  or  brain  and  some  muscle.  The 
nervous  system  is  simply  the  sum  total  of  all  these  neurones,  which  form  an  al- 
most infinitely  complex  system  of  connections  between  the  sense  organs  and  the 
muscles." 

The  word  synapsis,  meaning  clasping  together,  is  used  as  a  descriptive  term 
for  the  connections  that  exist  between  neurone  and  neurone. 


ORIGINAL  NATURE  15 

learning  have  had  an  opportunity  to  influence  these  responses 
can  the  child  be  held  responsible  for  his  conduct,  for  only  then 
does  his  conduct  become  conscious  instead  of  merely  physiologi- 
cal. 

There  are  many  facts  concerning  the  psychology  of  these  in- 
born tendencies  that  are  interesting  and  important  from  a 
purely  theoretical  point  of  view,  but  only  those  which  are  of 
primary  importance  in  teaching  will  be  considered  here.  A 
fact  that  is  often  overlooked  by  teachers  is  that  these  inborn 
tendencies  to  connections  of  various  kinds  exist  in  the  intel- 
lectual and  emotional  fields  just  as  truly  as  in  the  field  of  action 
or  motor  response.  The  capacity  to  think  in  terms  of  words 
and  of  generals;  to  understand  relationships;  to  remember; 
to  imagine ;  to  be  satisfied  with  thinking,  —  all  these,  as  well 
as  such  special  abilities  as  skill  in  music,  in  managing  people  or 
affairs,  in  tact,  or  in  sympathy,  are  due  to  just  the  same  factors 
as  produce  fear  or  curiosity.  These  former  types  of  tendencies 
differ  from  the  latter  in  complexity  of  situation  and  response,  in 
definiteness  of  response,  in  variability  amongst  individuals  of 
the  same  family,  and  in  modifiability ;  but  in  the  essential  ele- 
ment they  do  not  differ  from  the  more  evident  inborn  tendencies. 

Just  what  these  original  tendencies  are  and  just  what  the 
situations  are  to  which  they  come  as  responses  are  both  un- 
known except  in  a  very  few  instances.  The  psychology  of 
original  nature  has  enumerated  the  so-called  instincts  and 
discussed  a  few  of  their  characteristics,  but  has  left  almost  un- 
touched the  inborn  capacities  that  are  more  peculiarly  human. 
Even  the  treatment  of  instincts  has  been  misleading.  For 
instance,  instincts  have  been  discussed  under  such  heads  as  the 
"  self -preservative  instincts,"  ''the  social  instincts,"  just  as  if 
the  child  had  an  inborn,  mystical  something  that  told  him  how 
t(r  preserve  his  life,  or  become  a  social  king.  Original  nature 
does  not  work  in  that  way ;  it  is  only  as  the  experience  of  the  indi- 


1 6  HOW  TO  TEACH 

vidual  modifies  the  blind  instinctive  responses  through  learn- 
ing that  these  results  can  just  as  easily  come  about  unless  the 
care  of  parents  provides  the  right  sort  of  surroundings.  There 
is  nothing  in  the  child's  natural  makeup  that  warns  him  against 
eating  pins  and  buttons  and  poisonous  berries,  or  encourages 
him  to  eat  milk  and  eggs  and  cereal  instead  of  cake  and  sweets. 
He  will  do  one  sort  of  thing  just  as  eeisily  as  the  other.  All 
nature  provides  him  with  is  a  blind  tendency  to  put  all  objects 
that  attract  his  attention  into  his  mouth.  This  response  may 
preserve  his  life  or  destroy  it,  depending  on  the  conditions  in 
which  he  lives.     The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  ''social  instinct" 

—  the  child  may  become  the  most  selfish  egotist  imaginable  or 
the  most  self-sacrificing  of  men,  according  as  his  surroundings 
and  training  influence  the  original  tendencies  towards  behavior 
to  other  people  in  one  way  or  the  other.  Of  course  it  is  very 
evident  that  no  one  has  ever  consistently  lived  up  to  the  idea 
indicated  by  such  a  treatment  of  original  nature,  but  certain 
tendencies  in  education  are  traceable  to  such  psychology.  What 
the  child  has  by  nature  is  neither  good  nor  bad,  right  nor  wrong 

—  it  may  become  either  according  to  the  habits  which  grow  out 
of  these  tendencies.  A  child's  inborn  nature  cannot  determine 
the  goal  of  his  education.  His  nature  has  remained  practically 
the  same  from  the  days  of  primitive  man,  while  the  goals  of  edu- 
cation have  changed.  What  nature  does  provide  is  an  immense 
number  of  definite  responses  to  definite  situations.  These  pro- 
vide the  capital  which  education  and  training  may  use  as  it 
will. 

It  is  just  because  education  does  need  to  use  these  tendencies 
as  capital  that  the  lack  of  knowledge  of  just  what  the  responses 
are  is  such  a  serious  one.  And  yet  the  difficulties  of  determin- 
ing just  what  original  nature  gives  are  so  tremendous  that  hr 
task  seems  a  hopeless  one  to  many  investigators.  The  face 
that  in  the  human  being  these  tendencies  are  so  easily  modified 


ORIGINAL  NATURE  17 

means  that  from  the  first  they  are  being  influenced  and  changed 
by  the  experiences  of  the  child.  Because  of  the  quality  of  our 
inheritance  the  response  to  a  situation  is  not  a  one-to-one  affair, 
like  a  key  in  a  lock,  but  all  sorts  of  minor  causes  in  the  individ- 
ual are  operative  in  determining  his  response  ;  and,  on  the  other 
side,  situations  are  so  complex  in  themselves  that  they  contain 
that  which  may  call  out  several  different  instincts.  For  ex- 
ample, a  child's  response  to  an  animal  will  be  influenced  by  his 
own  physical  condition,  emotional  attitude,  and  recent  mental 
status  and  by  the  conditions  of  size  and  nearness  of  the  animal, 
whether  it  is  shaggy  or  not,  moving  or  still,  whether  he  is  alone 
or  with  others,  on  the  floor  or  in  his  chair,  and  the  like.  It 
will  depend  on  just  how  these  factors  combine  as  to  whether 
the  response  is  one  of  fear,  of  curiosity,  of  manipulation,  or  of 
friendliness.  When  to  these  facts  are  added  the  fact  that  the 
age  and  previous  habits  of  the  child  also  influence  his  response, 
the  immense  complexity  of  the  problem  of  discovering  just 
what  the  situations  are  to  which  there  are  original  tendencies 
to  respond  and  just  how  these  tendencies  show  themselves  is 
evident.  And  yet  this  is  what  psychologists  must  finally  do 
if  the  use  by  teachers  of  these  tendencies  is  to  be  both  economical 
and  wise.  Just  as  an  illustration  of  the  possibilities  of  analysis, 
Thorndike  in  his  ''Original  Nature  of  Man"  lists  eleven  different 
situations  which  call  out  an  instinctive  expression  of  fear  and 
thirty-one  different  responses  which  may  occur  in  that  expres- 
sion. Under  fighting  he  says,  "There  seem,  indeed,  to  be  at 
least  six  separable  sets  of  connections  in  the  so-called  'fighting 
instinct,'"  in  each  of  which  the  situation  and  the  response  differ 
from  any  other  one. 

Very  few  of  the  instincts  are  present  at  birth ;  most  of  them 
develop  later  in  the  child's  hfe.  Pillsbury  says,  "One  may 
rfecognize  the  food-taking  instincts,  the  vocal  protests  at  dis- 
comfort, but  relatively  few  others."     This  delay  in  the  appear- 


i8  HOW  TO  TEACH 

ance  of  instincts  and  capacities  is  dependent  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  the  nervous  system.  No  one  of  them  can  appear  until 
the  connections  between  nerve  centers  are  ready,  making  the 
path  of  discharge  perfect.  Just  when  these  various  nervous 
connections  mature,  and  therefore  just  when  the  respective  tend- 
encies should  appear,  is  largely  unknown.  In  only  a  few  of  the 
most  prominent  and  comparatively  simple  responses  is  it  even 
approximately  known.  Holding  the  head  up  is  accomplished 
about  the  fourth  month,  walking  and  talking  somewhere  near 
the  twelfth,  but  the  more  complex  the  tendency  and  the  more 
they  involve  intellectual  factors,  the  greater  is  the  uncertainty 
as  to  the  time  of  development.  We  are  told  that  fear  is  most 
prominent  at  about  "three  or  four"  years  of  age,  spontaneous 
imitation  "becomes  very  prominent  the  latter  part  of  the  first 
year,"  the  gang  instinct  is  characteristic  of  the  preadolescent 
period,  desire  for  adventure  shows  itself  in  early  adolescence, 
altruism  "appears  in  the  early  teens,"  and  the  sex  instinct  "after 
about  a  dozen  years  of  life."  The  child  of  from  four  to  six  is 
largely  sensory,  from  seven  to  nine  he  is  motor,  from  then  to 
twelve  the  retentive  powers  are  prominent.  In  the  adolescent 
period  he  is  capable  of  thinking  logically  and  reasoning,  while 
maturity  finds  him  a  man  of  responsibilities  and  affairs.  Al- 
though there  is  some  truth  in  the  belief  that  certain  tendencies 
are  more  prominent  at  certain  periods  in  the  development  of 
the  child  than  at  others,  still  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  just 
when  these  optimum  periods  occur  is  not  known.  Three  of  the 
most  important  reasons  for  this  lack  of  knowledge  are :  first, 
the  fact  that  all  inborn  tendencies  mature  gradually  and  do  not 
burst  into  being ;  second,  we  do  not  know  how  transitory  they 
are ;  and,  third,  the  fact  of  the  great  influence  of  environment 
in  stimulating  or  repressing  such  capacities. 

Although  the  tendency  to  make  collections  is  most  prominent 
at  nine,  the  beginnings  of  it  may  be  found  before  the  child  is 


ORIGINAL  NATURE  19 

five.  Moll  finds  that  the  sex  instinct  begins  its  development  at 
about  six  years  of  age,  despite  the  fact  that  it  is  always  quoted 
as  the  adolescent  instinct.  Children  in  the  kindergarten  can 
think  out  their  little  problems  purposively,  even  though  reason- 
ing is  supposed  to  mark  the  high  school  pupil.  The  elements 
of  most  tendencies  show  themselves  early  in  crude,  almost  unrec- 
ognizable, beginnings,  and  from  these  they  grow  gradually  to 
maturity. 

In  the  second  place  how  quickly  do  these  tendencies  fade? 
How  transitory  are  they?  It  has  always  been  stated  in  general 
psychology  that  instincts  are  transitory,  that  therefore  it  was 
the  business  of  teachers  to  strike  while  the  iron  was  hot,  to 
seize  the  wave  of  interest  or  response  at  its  crest  before  the 
ebb  had  begun.  There  was  supposed  to  be  a  "happy  moment 
for  fixing  in  children  skill  in  drawing,  for  making  collections  in 
natural  history,"  for  developing  the  appreciative  emotions, 
for  training  the  social  instinct,  or  the  memory  or  the  imagina- 
tion. Children  are  supposed  to  be  interested  and  attracted 
by  novelty,  rhythm,  and  movement,  —  to  be  creatures  of  play 
and  imagination  and  to  become  different  merely  as  a  matter  of 
the  transitoriness  of  these  tendencies  due  to  growth.  When 
the  activities  of  the  adult  and  the  child  are  analyzed  to  see  what 
tendencies  have  really  passed,  are  transitory,  it  is  difficult 
to  find  any  that  have  disappeared.  True,  they  have  changed 
their  form,  have  been  influenced  by  the  third  factor  mentioned 
above,  but  change  the  surroundings  a  fit  tie  and  the  tendency 
appears.  Free  the  adult  from  the  restraints  of  his  ordinary  life 
and  turn  him  out  for  a  holiday  and  the  childish  tendencies  of 
interest  in  novelty  and  the  mysterious,  in  physical  prowess  and 
adventure  and  play,  all  make  their  appearance.  In  how  many 
adults  does  the  collecting  instinct  still  persist,  and  the  instinct 
of  personal  rivalry?  In  how  many  has  the  crude  desire  for 
material  ownership  or  the  impulse  to  punish  an  affront  by  phys- 


20  HOW  TO  TEACH 

ical  attack  died  out?  Experimental  evidence  is  even  proving 
that  the  general  plasticity  of  the  nervous  system,  which  has  al- 
ways been  considered  to  be  transitory,  is  of  very,  very  much 
longer  duration  than  has  been  supposed. 

In  illustration  of  the  third  fact,  namely,  the  effect  of  envi- 
ronment to  stimulate  or  repress,  witness  the  *' little  mothers" 
of  five  and  the  wage  earners  of  twelve  who  have  assumed  all 
the  responsibilities  with  all  that  they  entail  of  maturity.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  picture  is  the  indulged  petted  child  of  fortune 
who  never  grows  up  because  he  has  had  everything  done  for 
him  all  his  life,  and  therefore  the  tendencies  which  normally 
might  be  expected  to  pass  and  give  place  to  others  remain  and 
those  others  never  appear.  That  inborn  tendencies  do  wax, 
reach  a  maximum,  and  wane  is  probably  true,  but  the  onset  is 
much  more  gradual  and  the  waning  much  less  frequent  than  has 
been  taken  for  granted.  Our  ignorance  concerning  all  these 
matters  outweighs  our  knowledge;  only  careful  experimenta- 
tion which  allows  for  all  the  other  factors  involved  can  give  a 
reliable  answer. 

One  reason  why  the  facts  of  delayedness  and  transitoriness 
in  instincts  have  been  so  generally  accepted  without  being  thor- 
oughly tested  has  been  the  belief  in  the  recapitulation  or  repeat- 
ing by  the  individual  of  racial  development.  So  long  as  this 
was  accepted  as  explaining  the  development  of  inborn  tendencies 
and  their  order  of  appearance,  transitoriness  and  delayedness 
must  necessarily  be  postulated.  This  theory  is  being  seriously 
questioned  by  psychologists  of  note,  and  even  its  strongest  advo- 
cate. President  Hall,  finds  many  questions  concerning  it  which 
cannot  be  answered. 

The  chief  reasons  for  its  acceptance  were  first,  on  logical 
grounds  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  and  sec- 
ond, because  of  an  analogy  with  the  growth  of  the  physical 
body  which  was  pushed  to  an  extreme.     On  the  physiological 


ORIGINAL  NATURE  21 

side,  although  there  is  some  likeness  between  the  human  embryo 
and  that  of  the  lower  animals,  still  the  stages  passed  through 
by  the  two  are  not  the  same,  being  alike  only  in  rough  outline, 
and  only  in  the  case  of  a  few  of  the  bodily  organs  is  the  series  of 
changes  similar.  In  the  case  of  the  physical  structure  which 
should  be  recapitulated  most  closely,  if  behavior  is  to  follow 
the  same  law,  —  namely,  in  that  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system, 
—  there  is  least  evidence  of  recapitulation.  The  brain  of  man 
does  not  follow  in  its  development  at  all  the  same  course  taken 
in  the  development  of  brains  in  the  lower  animals.  And,  more- 
over, it  is  perfectly  possible  to  explain  any  similarity  or  parallel- 
ism which  does  exist  between  the  development  of  man's  embryo 
and  that  of  lower  animals  by  postulating  a  general  order  of 
development  followed  by  nature  as  the  easiest  or  most  econom- 
ical, traces  of  which  must  then  be  found  in  all  animal  life. 
When  it  comes  to  the  actual  test  of  the  theory,  that  of  finding 
actual  cases  of  recapitulation  in  behavior,  it  fails.  No  one  has 
been  able  to  point  out  just  when  a  child  passes  through  any 
stage  of  racial  development,  and  any  attempt  to  do  so  has 
resulted  in  confusion.  There  is  no  clear-cut  marking  off  into 
stages,  but,  instead,  overlapping  and  coexistence  of  tendencies 
characterize  the  development  of  the  child.  The  infant  of  a 
few  days  old  may  show  the  swimming  movements,  but  at  the 
same  time  he  can  support  his  own  weight  by  clinging  to  a  hori- 
zontal stick.  Which  stage  is  he  recapitulating,  that  of  the 
fishes  or  the  monkeys?  The  nine-year-old  boy  loves  to  swim, 
climb  trees,  and  hunt  like  a  savage  all  at  the  same  period,  and, 
what  is  more,  some  of  these  same  tendencies  characterize  the 
college  man.  The  late  maturing  of  the  sex  instinct,  so  old  and 
strong  in  the  race,  and  the  early  appearing  of  the  tendencies 
towards  vocalization  and  grasping,  both  of  late  date  in  the  race, 
are  facts  that  are  hard  to  explain  on  the  basis  of  the  theory  of 
recapitulation. 


22  HOW  TO  TEACH 

As  has  been  already  suggested,  one  of  the  most  important 
characteristics  of  all  these  tendencies  is  their  modifiability. 
The  very  ease  with  which  they  can  be  modified  suggests  that 
this  is  what  has  most  often  to  be  done  with  them.  On  examina- 
tion of  the  lists  of  original  tendencies  there  are  none  which  can 
be  kept  and  fixed  in  the  form  in  which  they  first  appear.  Even 
the  best  of  them  are  crude  and  impossible  from  the  standpoint 
of  civihzed  society.  Take  as  an  illustration  mother-love; 
what  are  the  original  tendencies  and  behavior?  *'A11  women 
possess  originally,  from  early  childhood  to  death,  some  interest 
in  human  babies,  and  a  responsiveness  to  the  instinctive  looks, 
calls,  gestures,  and  cries  of  infancy  and  childhood,  being  satis- 
fied by  childish  gurglings,  smiles,  and  affectionate  gestures, 
and  moved  to  instinctive  comforting  acts  of  childish  signs  of 
pain,  grief,  and  misery."  But  the  mother  has  to  learn  not  to 
cuddle  the  baby  and  talk  to  it  all  the  time  it  is  awake  and  not 
to  run  to  it  and  take  it  up  at  every  cry,  to  steel  her  heart  against 
the  wheedhng  of  the  coaxing  gurgles  and  even  to  allow  the  baby 
to  hurt  himself,  all  for  his  own  good.  This  comes  about  only 
as  original  nature  is  modified  in  line  with  knowledge  and  ideals. 
The  same  need  is  evidenced  by  such  a  valuable  tendency  as 
curiosity.  .  So  far  as  original  nature  goes,  the  tendency  to  attend 
to  novel  objects,  to  human  behavior,  to  explore  with  the  eyes 
and  manipulate  with  the  hands,  to  enjoy  having  sensations  of 
all  kinds  merely  for  their  own  sakes,  make  up  what  is  known  as 
the  instinct  of  curiosity.  But  what  a  tremendous  amount  of 
modification  is  necessary  before  these  crude  responses  result  in 
the  valuable  scientific  curiosity.  Not  blind  following  where 
instinct  leads,  but  modification,  must  be  the  watchword. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  equally  few  tendencies  that  could 
be  spared,  could  be  absolutely  voted  out  without  loss  to  the 
individual  or  the  race.  Bullying  as  an  original  tendency  seems 
to  add  nothing  to  the  possibilities  of  development,  but  every 


ORIGINAL  NATURE  23 

other  inborn  tendency  has  its  value.  Jealousy,  anger,  fighting, 
rivalry,  possessiveness,  fear,  each  has  its  quota  to  contribute  to 
valuable  manhood  and  womanhood.  Again,  not  suppression 
but  a  wise  control  must  be  the  attitude  of  the  educator.  Inhi- 
bition of  certain  phases  or  elements  of  some  of  the  tendencies  is 
necessary  for  the  most  valuable  development  of  the  individual, 
but  the  entire  loss  of  any  save  one  or  two  would  be  disastrous 
to  some  form  of  adult  usefulness  or  enjoyment.  The  method 
by  which  valuable  elements  or  phases  of  an  original  tendency 
are  fixed  and  strengthened  is  the  general  method  of  habit 
formation  and  will  be  taken  up  under  that  head  in  Chapter  IV. 
When  the  modification  involves  definite  inhibition,  there  are 
three  possible  methods,  —  punishment,  disuse,  and  substitu- 
tion. As  an  example  of  the  use  of  the  three  methods  take  the 
case  of  a  child  who  develops  a  fear  of  the  dark.  In  using  the 
first  method  the  child  would  be  punished  every  time  he  exhibited 
fear  of  the  dark.  By  using  the  second  method  he  would  never 
be  allowed  to  go  into  a  dark  room,  a  light  being  left  burning  in 
his  bedroom,  etc.,  until  the  tendency  to  fear  the  dark  had 
passed.  In  the  third  method  the  emotion  of  fear  would  be 
replaced  by  that  of  joy  or  satisfaction  by  making  the  bedtime 
the  occasion  for  telling  a  favorite  story  or  for  being  allowed  to 
have  the  best-loved  toy,  or  for  being  played  with  or  cuddled. 
The  situation  of  darkness  might  be  met  in  still  another  way.  If 
the  child  were  old  enough,  the  emotion  of  courage  might  replace 
that  of  fear  by  having  him  make  believe  he  was  a  soldier  or  a 
policeman. 

The  method  of  punishment  is  the  usual  one,  the  one  most 
teachers  and  parents  use  first.  It  relies  for  its  effectiveness  on 
the  general  law  of  the  nervous  system  that  pain  tends  to  weaken 
the  connections  with  whose  activity  it  is  associated.  The 
method  is  weak  in  that  pain  is  not  a  strong  enough  weapon  to 
break  the  fundamental  connections ;  it  is  not  known  how  much 


k 


24  HOW  TO  TEACH 

of  it  is  necessary  to  break  even  weaker  ones ;  it  is  negative  in 
its  results  —  breaking  one  connection  but  replacing  it  by  noth- 
ing else.  The  second  method  of  inhibition  is  that  of  disuse. 
It  is  possible  to  inhibit  by  this  means,  because  lack  of  use  of 
connections  in  the  nervous  system  results  in  atrophy.  As  a 
method  it  is  valuable  because  it  does  not  arouse  resistance  or 
anger.  It  is  weak  in  that  as  neither  the  delayedness  nor  the 
transitoriness  of  instincts  is  known,  when  to  begin  to  keep  the 
situation  from  the  child,  and  how  long  to  keep  it  away  in  order 
to  provide  for  the  dying  out  of  the  connections,  are  not  known. 
The  method  is  negative  and  very  unsure  of  results.  The 
method  of  substitution  depends  for  its  use  upon  the  presence 
in  the  individual  of  opposing  tendencies  and  of  different  levels 
of  development  in  the  same  tendency.  Because  of  this  fact  a 
certain  response  to  a  situation  may  be  inhibited  by  forming  the 
habit  of  meeting  the  situation  in  another  way  or  of  replacing  a 
lower  phase  of  a  tendency  by  a  higher  one.  This  method  is 
difficult  to  handle  because  of  the  need  of  knowledge  of  the  orig- 
inal tendencies  of  children  in  general  which  it  implies  as  well 
as  the  knowledge  of  the  capacities  and  development  of  the  indi- 
vidual child  with  whom  the  work  is  being  done.  The  amount 
of  time  and  individual  attention  necessary  adds  another  diffi- 
culty. However,  it  is  by  far  the  best  method  of  the  three,  for 
it  is  sure,  is  economical,  using  the  energy  that  is  provided  by 
nature,  is  educative,  and  is  positive.  To  replace  what  is  poor 
or  harmful  by  something  better  is  one  of  the  greatest  problems 
of  human  life  —  and  this  is  the  outcome  of  the  method  of  sub- 
stitution. All  three  methods  have  their  place  in  a  system  of 
education,  and  certain  of  them  are  more  in  place  at  certain 
times  than  at  others,  but  at  all  times  if  the  method  of  substitu- 
tion can  be  used  it  should  be. 

The  instinct  of  physical  activity  is  one  of  the  most  notice- 
able ones  in  babyhood.     The  young  baby  seems  to  be  in  constant 


ORIGINAL   NATURE  25 

movement.  Even  when  asleep,  the  twitchings  and  squirmings 
may  continue.  This  continued  muscular  activity  is  necessary 
because  the  motor  nerves  offer  the  only  possible  path  of  dis- 
charge at  first.  As  higher  centers  in  the  brain  are  developed, 
the  ingoing  currents,  aroused  by  all  sense  stimuli,  find  other 
connections,  and  ideas,  images,  trains  of  thoughts,  are  aroused, 
and  so  the  energy  is  consumed ;  but  at  first  all  that  these  cur- 
rents can  do  is  to  arouse  physical  activity.  The  strength  of  this 
instinct  is  but  little  diminished  by  the  time  the  child  comes  to 
school.  His  natural  inclination  is  to  do  things  requiring  move- 
ment of  all  the  growing  muscles.  Inhibition,  ''sitting  still,'' 
"being  quiet,"  takes  real  effort  on  his  part,  and  is  extremely 
fatiguing.  This  instinct  is  extremely  valuable  in  several  ways : 
it  gives  the  exercise  necessary  to  a  growing  body,  provides  the 
experience  of  muscle  movements  necessary  for  control,  and 
stimulates  mental  growth  through  the  increase  and  variety  of 
experiences  it  gives. 

The  tendency  to  enjoy  mental  activity,  to  be  satisfied  with 
it  for  its  own  sake,  is  peculiarly  a  human  trait.  This  capacity 
shows  itself  in  two  important  ways  —  in  the  interest  in  sensory 
stimuli,  usually  discussed  under  the  head  of  curiosity,  and  in 
the  delight  in  ''being  a  cause"  or  mental  control.  The  interest 
in  tastes,  sounds,  sights,  touches,  etc.,  merely  for  their  own  sake, 
is  very  evident  in  a  baby.  He  spends  most  of  his  waking  time 
in  just  that  enjoyment.  Though  more  complex,  it  is  still 
strong  when  the  child  enters  school,  and  for  years  any  object  of 
sense  which  attracts  his  attention  is  material  which  arouses 
this  instinct.  The  second  form  in  which  the  instinct  for  mental 
abiHty  shows  itself  is  later  in  development  and  involves  the 
secondary  brain  connections.  It  is  the  satisfaction  aroused 
by  results  of  which  the  individual  is  the  cause.  For  example, 
the  enjoyment  of  a  child  in  seeing  a  ball  swing  or  hearing  a 
whistle  blown  would  be  a  manifestation  of  curiosity,  while  the 


26  HOW  TO  TEACH 

added  interest  which  is  always  present  when  the  child  not  only 
sees  the  ball  swing  but  swings  it,  not  only  hears  the  whistle  but 
blows  it  himself,  is  a  result  of  the  second  tendency,  that  of  joy 
in  being  a  cause.  As  the  child  grows  older  the  same  tendency 
shows  itself  on  a  higher  level  when  the  materials  dealt  with, 
instead  of  being  sensations  or  percepts,  are  images  or  ideas. 
The  interest  in  following  out  a  train  of  ideas  to  a  logical  conclu- 
sion, of  building  "castles  in  the  air,"  of  making  plans  and  getting 
results,  all  find  their  taproot  in  this  instinctive  tendency  towards 
mental  activity. 

In  close  connection  with  the  general  tendency  towards  phys- 
ical activity  is  the  instinct  of  manipulation.  From  this  crude 
root  grows  constructiveness  and  destructiveness.  As  it  shows 
itself  at  first  it  has  the  elements  of  neither.  The  child  inherits 
the  tendency  to  respond  by  "many  different  arm,  hand,  and 
finger  movements  to  many  different  objects" — poking,  pull- 
ing, handling,  tearing,  piHng,  digging,  and  dropping  objects. 
Just  what  habits  of  using  tools,  and  the  like,  will  grow  out  of 
this  tendency  will  depend  on  the  education  and  training  it  gets. 
The  habits  of  constructiveness  may  be  developed  in  different 
sorts  of  media.  The  order  of  their  availability  is  roughly  as 
follows :  first,  in  the  use  of  materials  such  as  wood,  clay,  rafiia, 
etc. ;  second,  in  the  use  of  pencil  and  brush  with  color,  etc. ; 
third,  in  the  use  of  words.  We  should  therefore  expect  and 
provide  for  considerable  development  along  manual  lines  before 
demanding  much  in  the  way  of  literary  expression.  Indeed, 
it  may  be  argued  that  richness  of  experience  in  doing  is  pre- 
requisite to  verbal  expression. 

Acquisitiveness  and  collecting  are  two  closely  allied  tendencies 
of  great  strength.  Every  child  has  a  tendency  to  approach, 
grasp,  and  carry  off  any  object  not  too  large  which  attracts  his 
attention,  and  to  be  satisfied  by  its  mere  possession.  Blind 
hoarding  and  collecting  of  objects  sometimes  valueless  in  them- 


ORIGINAL  NATURE  27 

selves  results.  This  instinct  is  very  much  influenced  in  its 
manifestation  by  others  which  are  present  at  the  same  time,  such 
as  the  food-getting  instinct,  rivalry,  love  of  approval,  etc.  The 
time  at  which  the  tendency  to  collect  seems  strongest  is  at  about 
nine  years,  judged  by  the  number  of  collections  per  child. 

Rivalry  as  an  instinct  shows  itself  in  increased  vigor,  in  in- 
stinctive activity  when  others  are  engaged  in  the  same  activity, 
and  in  satisfaction  when  superiority  is  attained.  There  is 
probably  no  inborn  tendency  whereby  these  responses  of  in- 
creased vigor  and  satisfaction  are  aroused  in  connection  with  any 
kind  of  activity.  We  do  not  try  to  surpass  others  in  the  way  we 
talk  or  in  our  moral  habits  or  in  our  intellectual  attainments,  as 
a  result  of  nature,  but  rather  as  a  result  of  painstaking  educa- 
tion. As  an  instinct,  rivalry  is  aroused  only  in  connection  with 
other  instinctive  responses.  In  getting  food,  in  securing  atten- 
tion or  approval,  in  hunting  and  collecting,  the  activity  would 
be  increased  by  seeing  another  doing  the  same  thing,  and  satis- 
faction would  be  aroused  at  success  or  annoyance  at  failure. 
The  use  of  rivalry  in  other  activities  and  at  other  levels  comes  as 
a  result  of  experience. 

The  fighting  responses  are  called  out  by  a  variety  of  situations. 
These  situations  are  definite  and  the  responses  to  them  differ 
from  each  other.  In  each  case  the  child  tries  by  physical  force 
of  some  kind,  by  scratching,  kicking,  biting,  slapping,  throwing, 
and  the  like,  to  change  the  situation  into  a  more  agreeable  one. 
This  is  true  whether  he  be  trying  to  escape  from  the  restraining 
arms  of  his  mother  or  to  compel  another  child  to  recognize  his 
mastery.  Original  nature  endows  us  with  the  pugnacious  in- 
stinct on  the  physical  level  and  in  connection  with  situations 
which  for  various  reasons  annoy  us.  If  this  is  to  be  raised  in  its 
manner  of  response  from  the  physical  to  the  intellectual  level, 
if  the  occasions  calling  it  out  are  to  be  changed  from  those  that 
merely  annoy  one  to  those  which  involve  the  rights  of  others 


28  HOW  TO  TEACH 

and  matters  of  principle,  it  must  be  as  a  result  of  education. 
Nature  provides  only  this  crude  root. 

Imitation  has  long  been  discussed  as  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant and  influential  of  human  instincts.  It  has  been  regarded 
as  a  big  general  tendency  to  attempt  to  do  whatever  one  saw 
any  one  else  doing.  As  such  a  tendency  it  does  not  exist.  It  is 
only  in  certain  narrow  lines  that  the  tendency  to  imitate  shows 
itself,  such  as  smiling  when  smiled  at,  yelling  when  others  yell, 
looking  and  Hstening,  running,  crouching,  attacking,  etc.,  when 
others  do.  To  this  extent  and  in  similar  situations  the  tendency 
to  imitate  seems  to  be  truly  an  instinct.  Imitating  in  other 
lines,  such  as  writing  as  another  writes,  talking,  dressing, 
acting  like  a  friend,  trying  to  use  the  methods  used  by  others, 
etc.,  are  a  result  of  experience  and  education.  The  "spon- 
taneous," "dramatic,"  and  "voluntary"  imitation  discussed  by 
some  authors  are  the  stages  of  development  of  hahits  of  imi- 
tation. 

The  desire  to  be  with  others  of  the  same  species,  the  satisfac- 
tion at  company  and  the  discomfort  aroused  by  soHtude,  is  one 
of  the  strongest  roots  of  all  social  tendencies  and  customs.  It 
manifests  itself  in  young  babies,  and  continues  a  strong  force 
throughout  life.  As  an  instinct  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  either 
being  interested  in  taking  one's  share  in  the  duties  or  pleasures 
of  the  group  or  with  being  interested  in  people  for  their  own 
sakes.  It  is  merely  that  company  makes  one  comfortable  and 
solitude  annoys  one.  Anything  further  must  come  as  a  result 
of  experience. 

Motherliness  and  kindliness  have  as  their  characteristic  be- 
havior tendencies  to  respond  by  instinctive  comforting  acts  to 
signs  of  pain,  grief,  or  misery  shown  by  living  things,  especially, 
by  children,  and  by  the  feeling  of  satisfaction  and  the  sight  of 
happiness  in  others.  Of  course  very  often  these  instinctive  re- 
sponses are  interfered  with  by  the  presence  of  some  other  in- 


ORIGINAL  NATURE  29 

stinct,  such  as  fighting,  hunting,  ownership,  or  scorn,  but  that 
such  tendencies  to  respond  in  such  situations  are  a  part  of  the 
original  equipment  of  man  seems  beyond  dispute.  They  are 
possessed  by  both  sexes  and  manifest  themselves  in  very  early 
childhood. 

There  are  original  tendencies  to  respond  both  in  getting  and 
in  giving  approval  and  scorn.  By  original  nature,  smiles,  pats, 
admiration,  and  companionship  from  one  to  whom  submission 
is  given  arouses  intense  satisfaction ;  and  the  withdrawal  of  such 
responses,  and  the  expression  of  scorn  or  disapproval,  excites 
great  discomfort.  Even  the  expression  of  approval  or  scorn 
from  any  one  —  a  stranger  or  a  servant  —  brings  with  it  the  re- 
sponses of  satisfaction  or  discomfort.  Just  as  strongly  marked 
are  original  tendencies  which  cause  responses  of  approval  and 
cause  as  a  result  of  ^'relief  from  hunger,  rescue  from  fear,  gor- 
geous display,  instinctive  acts  of  strength,  daring  and  victory,'' 
and  responses  of  scorn  ^'to  the  observation  of  empty-handed- 
ness,  deformity,  physical  meanness,  pusillanimity,  and  defect." 
The  desire  for  approval  is  never  outgrown  —  it  is  one  of  the 
governing  forces  in  society.  If  it  is  to  be  shown  or  desired  on 
any  but  this  crude  level  of  instinctive  response,  it  can  only  come 
by  education. 

Children  come  to  school  with  both  an  original  nature  deter- 
mined by  their  human  inheritance  and  by  their  more  imme- 
diate family  relationship,  and  with  an  education  more  signifi- 
cant, perhaps,  than  any  which  the  school  can  provide.  From 
earliest  infancy  up  to  the  time  of  entering  a  kindergarten  or  a 
first  grade,  the  original  equipment  in  terms  of  instincts,  capac- 
ities, and  abilities  has  been  utilized  by  the  child  and  directed 
by  his  parents  and  associates  in  learning  to  walk  and  to  talk,  to 
conform  to  certain  social  standards  or  requirements,  to  accept 
certain  rules  or  precepts,  or  to  act  in  accordance  with  certain 
beliefs  or  superstitions.     The  problem  which  the  teacher  faces 


30  HOW  TO  TEACH 

is  that  of  directing  and  guiding  an  individual,  who  is  at  the 
same  time  both  educated  and  in  possession  of  tendencies  and 
capacities  which  make  possible  further  development. 

Not  infrequently  the  education  which  children  have  when 
they  come  to  school  may  in  some  measure  handicap  the  teacher. 
It  is  unfortunate,  but  true,  that  in  some  homes  instinctive  tend- 
encies which  should  have  been  overcome  have  been  magnified. 
The  control  of  children  is  sometimes  secured  through  the  utili- 
zation of  the  instinct  of  fear.  The  fighting  instinct  may  often 
have  been  overdeveloped  in  a  home  in  which  disagreement 
and  nagging,  even  to  the  extent  of  physical  violence,  have  taken 
the  place  of  reason.  Pride  and  jealousy  may  have  taken  deep 
root  on  account  of  the  encouragement  and  approval  which  have 
been  given  by  thoughtless  adults. 

The  teacher  does  not  attack  the  problem  of  education  with 
a  clean  slate,  but  rather  it  is  his  to  discover  what  results  have 
already  been  achieved  in  the  education  of  the  child,  whether 
they  be  good  or  bad,  for  it  is  in  the  light  of  original  nature  or 
original  tendencies  to  behave,  and  in  the  light  of  the  education 
already  secured,  that  the  teacher  must  work. 

When  one  realizes  the  great  variety  or  differences  in  ability  or 
capacity,  as  determined  by  heredity,  and  when  there  is  added 
to  this  difference  in  original  nature  the  fact  of  variety  in  train- 
ing which  children  have  experienced  prior  to  their  school  life, 
he  cannot  fail  to  emphasize  the  necessity  for  individualizing 
children.  While  it  is  true  that  we  may  assume  that  all  children 
will  take  delight  in  achievement,  it  may  be  necessary  with  one 
child  to  stir  as  much  as  possible  the  spirit  of  rivalry,  to  give  as 
far  as  one  can  the  delight  which  comes  from  success,  while  for 
another  child  in  the  same  class  one  may  need  to  minimize  suc- 
cess on  account  of  a  spirit  of  arrogance  which  has  been  developed 
before  school  life  began.  It  is  possible  to  conceive  of  a  situation 
in  which  some  children  need  to  be  encouraged  to  fight,  even  to 


ORIGINAL  NATURE  31 

the  extent  of  engaging  in  physical  combat,  in  order  to  develop 
a  kind  of  courage  which  will  accept  physical  discomfort  rather 
than  give  up  a  principle  or  ideal.  In  the  same  group  there  may 
be  children  for  whom  the  teacher  must  work  primarily  in  terms 
of  developing,  in  so  far  as  he  can,  the  willingness  to  reason  or 
discuss  the  issue  which  may  have  aroused  the  fighting  instinct. 
For  all  children  in  elementary  and  in  high  schools  the  possi- 
bility of  utilizing  their  original  nature  for  the  sake  of  that  devel- 
opment which  will  result  in  action  which  is  socially  desirable  is 
still  present.  The  problem  which  the  teacher  faces  will  be  more 
or  less  difficult  in  proportion  as  the  child's  endowment  by  origi- 
nal nature  is  large  or  small,  and  as  previous  education  has  been 
successful  or  unsuccessful.  .The  skillful  teacher  is  the  one  who 
will  constantly  seek  to  utilize  to  the  full  those  instincts  or  capac- 
ities which  seem  most  potent.  -  This  utilization,  as  has  already 
been  pointed  out,  does  not  mean  a  blind  following  of  the  instinc- 
tive tendencies,  but  often  the  substitution  of  a  higher  form  of 
action  for  a  lower,  which  may  seem  to  be  related  to  the  instinct 
in  question.  It  is  probably  wise  to  encourage  collections  of 
stamps,  of  pictures,  of  different  kinds  of  wood,  and  the  like, 
upon  the  part  of  children  in  the  elementary  school,  provided 
always  that  the  teacher  has  in  mind  the  possibility  of  leading 
these  children,  through  their  interest  in  objects,  to  desire  to 
collect  ideas.  Indeed,  a  teacher  might  measure  her  success  in 
utilizing  the  collecting  instinct  in  proportion  as  children  become 
relatively  less  interested  in  things  collected,  and  more  interested 
in  the  ideas  suggested  by  them,  or  in  the  mastery  of  fields  of 
knowledge  or  investigation  in  which  objects  have  very  little 
significance.  The  desire  for  physical  activity  upon  the  part  of 
children  is  originally  satisfied  by  very  crude  performances. 
Development  is  measured  not  simply  in  an  increase  in  manual 
dexterity,  but  also  in  terms  of  the  higher  satisfaction  which  may 
come  from  producing  articles  which  have  artistic  merit,  or  en- 


32  HOW  TO  TEACH 

gaging  in  games  of  skill  which  make  for  the  highest  physical 
efficiency. 

During  the  whole  period  of  childhood  and  adolescence  we 
may  never  assume  that  the  results  of  previous  education,  whether 
they  be  favorable  or  unsatisfactory,  are  permanent.  Whether 
we  succeed  or  not  in  achieving  the  ends  which  we  desire,  the 
fact  of  modifiability,  of  docility,  and  of  plasticity  remains. 
The  teacher  who  seeks  to  understand  the  individuals  with  whom 
he  works,  both  in  terms  of  their  original  nature  and  in  terms  of 
their  previous  education,  and  who  at  the  same  time  seeks  to 
substitute  for  a  lower  phase  of  an  instinctive  tendency  a  higher 
one,  or  who  tries  to  have  his  pupils  respond  to  a  situation  by 
inhibiting  a  particular  tendency  by  forming  the  habit  of  meeting 
the  situation  in  another  way,  need  not  despair  of  results  which 
are  socially  desirable. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  May  a  teacher  ever  expect  the  children  in  his  class  to  be  equal  in 
achievement  ?    Why  ? 

2.  Why  is  it  not  possible  to  educate  children  satisfactorily  by  following 
where  instincts  lead  ? 

3.  Which  of  the  instincts  seem  most  strong  in  the  children  in  your 
class  ? 

4.  Can  you  give  any  example  of  an  instinctive  tendency  which  you 
think  should  have  been  outgrown  but  which  seems  to  persist  among  your 
pupils  ? 

5.  Give  examples  of  the  inhibition  of  undesirable  actions  based  upon 
instinctive  tendencies  by  means  of  (i)  punishment,  (2)  disuse,  (3)  substitu- 
tion. 

6.  How  can  you  use  the  tendency  to  enjoy  mental  activity  ? 

7.  Why  does  building  a  boat  make  a  stronger  appeal  to  a  boy  than  en- 
gaging in  manual  training  exercises  which  might  involve  the  same  amount 
of  activity  ? 

8.  Cite  examples  of  collections  made  by  boys  and  girls  in  which  the 
ideas  associated  with  the  objects  collected  may  be  more  important  than  the 
objects  themselves. 


ORIGINAL  NATURE  33 

9.   In  what  degree  are  we  justified  in  speaking  of  the  social  instinct? 
The  instinct  to  imitate  ? 

10.  How  can  you  use  the  fighting  instinct  in  your  work  with  children  ? 

11.  What  can  teachers  do  to  influence  the  education  which  children  have 
received  or  are  getting  outside  of  school  ? 

12.  What  differences  in  action  among  the  children  in  your  class  do  you 
attribute  to  differences  in  original  nature?  What  to  differences  in  educa- 
tion ? 


Ill 

ATTENTION  AND   INTEREST  IN  TEACHING 

Attention  is  a  function  of  consciousness.  Wherever  con- 
sciousness is,  attention  must  perforce  be  present.  One  cannot 
exist  without  the  other.  According  to  most  psychologists,  the 
term  attention  is  used  to  describe  the  form  consciousness  takes, 
to  refer  to  the  fact  that  consciousness  is  selective.  It  simply 
means  that  consciousness  is  always  focal  and  marginal  —  that 
some  ideas,  facts,  or  feelings  stand  out  in  greater  prominence  than 
do  others,  and  that  the  presence  of  this  ''perspective"  in  con- 
sciousness is  a  matter  of  mechanical  adjustment.  James  de- 
scribes consciousness  by  likening  it  to  a  series  of  waves,  each 
having  a  crest  and  sides  which  correspond  to  the  focus  and 
margin  of  attention.  The  form  of  the  wave  changes  from  a 
high  sharp  crest  with  almost  straight  sides  in  pointed,  concen- 
trated attention,  to  a  series  of  mere  undulations,  when  crests  are 
difficult  to  distinguish,  in  so-called  states  of  dispersed  attention. 
The  latter  states  are  rare  in  normal  individuals,  although  they 
may  be  rather  frequent  in  certain  types  of  low-grade  mental 
defectives.  This  of  course  means  that  states  of  "inattention" 
do  not  exist  in  normal  people.  So  long  as  consciousness  is 
present  one  must  be'attending  to  something.  The  "day  dream " 
is  often  accompanied  by  concentrated  attention.  Only  when  we 
are  truly  thinking  of  nothing,  and  that  can  only  be  as  un- 
consciousness approaches,  is  attention  absent.  What  is  true 
of  attention  is  also  true  of  interest,  for  interest  is  coming  more 
and  more  to  be  considered  the  "feeling  side"  of  attention,  or 

34 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING  35 

the  affective  accompaniment  of  attention.  The  kind  of  interest 
may  vary,  but  some  kind  is  always  present.  The  place  the 
interest  occupies  may  also  vary :  sometimes  the  affective  state 
itself  is  so  strong  that  it  forces  itself  into  the  focal  point  and 
becomes  the  object  of  attention.  The  chief  fact  of  importance, 
however,  is  that  attention  and  interest  are  inseparable  and  both 
are  coexistent  with  consciousness. 

.  This  selective  action  of  consciousness  is  mechanical,  due  to 
the  inborn  tendencies  toward  attention  possessed  by  human 
beings.  The  situations  which  by  their  very  nature  occupy  the 
focal  point  in  consciousness  are  color  and  brightness,  novelty, 
sudden  changes  and  sharp  contrasts,  rhythm  and  cadence, 
movement,  and  all  other  situations  to  which  there  are  other 
instinctive  responses,  such  as  hunting,  collecting,  curiosity, 
manipulation,  etc.  In  other  words,  children  are  born  with 
tendencies  to  attend  to  an  enormous  number  of  situations  be- 
cause of  the  number  of  instinctive  responses  they  possess.  So 
great  is  this  number  that  psychologists  used  to  talk  about  the 
omnivorousness  of  children's  attention,  believing  that  they 
attended  to  everything.  Such  a  general  attention  seems  not 
to  be  true.  However,  it  is  because  so  many  situations  have  the 
power  to  force  consciousness  to  a  crest  that  human  beings  have 
developed  the  intellectual  power  that  puts  them  so  far  above 
other  animals.  That  these  situations  do  attract  attention  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  individuals  respond  by  movements 
which  enable  them  to  be  more  deeply  impressed  or  impressed 
for  a  longer  time  by  the  situations  in  question.  For  example,  a 
baby  will  focus  his  eyes  upon  a  bright  object  and  then  move 
eyes  and  head  to  follow  it  if  it  moves  from  his  field  of  vision. 
Just  what  the  situations  are,  then,  which  will  arouse  responses 
of  attention  in  any  given  individual  will  depend  in  the  first  place 
upon  his  age,  sex,  and  maturity,  and  in  the  second  place  upon 
his  experience.     The  process  of  learning  very  quickly  modifies 


S6  HOW  TO  TEACH 

the  inborn  tendencies  to  attention  by  adding  new  situations  which 
demand  it.  It  is  the  things  we  learn  to  attend  to  that  make  us 
human  rather  than  merely  animal. 

The  fact  of  attention  or  selection  must  of  necessity  involve 
also  inhibition  or  neglect.  The  very  fact  of  the  selection  of 
certain  objects  and  qualities  means  the  neglect  of  others.  This 
fact  of  neglect  is  at  first  just  as  mechanical  as  that  of  attention, 
but  experiences  teach  us  to  neglect  some  situations  which  by 
original  nature  attracted  attention.  From  the  standpoint  of 
education  what  we  neglect  is  quite  as  important  as  what  is 
selected  for  attention. 

The  breadth  of  a  person's  attention,  i.e.,  the  number  of  lines 
along  which  attention  is  possible,  must  vary  with  age  and  experi- 
ence. The  younger  or  the  more  immature  an  individual  is,  the 
greater  the  number  of  different  lines  to  which  attention  is  given. 
It  is  the  little  child  whose  attention  seems  omnivorous,  and  it  is 
the  old  person  for  whom  situations  worthy  of  attention  have 
narrowed  down  to  a  few  lines.  This  must  of  necessity  be  so,  due 
to  the  interrelation  of  attention  and  neglect.  The  very  fact  of 
continuing  to  give  attention  along  one  line  means  less  and  less 
ability  and  desire  to  attend  along  other  lines. 

The  question  as  to  how  many  things,  whether  objects  or  ideas, 
can  be  attended  to  at  the  same  time,  has  aroused  considerable 
discussion.  Most  people  think  that  they  are  attending  to  several 
things,  if  not  to  many,  at  the  same  second  of  consciousness. 
Experiments  show  that  if  four  or  five  unrelated  objects,  words, 
or  letters  be  shown  to  adults  for  less  than  one  quarter  of  a  second, 
they  can  be  apprehended,  but  the  probability  is  that  they  are 
photographed,  so  to  speak,  on  the  eye  and  counted  afterwards. 
It  is  the  general  belief  of  psychologists  at  present  that  the  mind 
attends  to  only  one  thing  at  a  time,  that  only  one  idea  or  object 
can  occupy  the  focal  point  in  consciousness. 

The  apparent  contradiction  between  ordinary  experience  and 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING  37 

psychological  experience  along  this  line  is  due  to  three  facts 
which  are  often  overlooked.  In  the  first  place,  the  complexity 
of  the  idea  or  thing  that  can  be  attended  to  as  a  unit  varies 
tremendously.  Differences  in  people  account  for  part  of  this 
variation,  but  training  and  experience  account  for  still  more. 
Our  ideas  become  more  and  more  complex  as  experience  and 
familiarity  build  them  up.  QuaHties  which  to  a  little  child 
demand  separate  acts  of  attention  are  with  the  adult  merged 
into  his  perception  of  the  object.  Just  as  simple  words,  although 
composed  of  separate  letters,  are  perceived  as  units,  so  with  train- 
ing, more  complex  units  may  be  found  which  can  be  attended  to 
as  wholes.  So  (to  the  ignorant  or  the  uninstructed)  what  is 
apparently  attending  to  more  than  one  thing  at  a  time  may  be 
explained  by  the  complexity  of  the  unit  which  is  receiving  the 
attention. 

In  the  second  place  doing  more  than  one  thing  at  a  time  does 
not  imply  attending  to  more  than  one  thing  at  a  time.  An 
activity  which  is  habitual  or  mechanical  does  not  need  attention, 
but  can  be  carried  on  by  the  control  exercised  by  the  fringe  of 
consciousness.  Attention  may  be  needed  to  start  the  activity 
or  if  a  difficulty  of  any  kind  should  arise,  but  that  is  all.  For 
the  rest  of  the  time  it  can  be  devoted  to  anything  else.  The  great 
speed  with  which  attention  can  flash  from  one  thing  to  another 
and  back  again  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  all  this  discus- 
sion. So  far  as  attention  goes,  one  can  do  as  many  things  at  a 
time  as  he  can  make  mechanical  plus  one  unfamiHar  one.  Thus 
a  woman  can  rock  the  baby's  cradle,  croon  a  lullaby,  knit,  and 
at  the  same  time  be  thinking  of  illustrations  for  her  paper  at  the 
Woman's  Club,  because  only  one  of  these  activities  needs  atten- 
tion. When  no  one  of  the  activities  is  automatic  and  the 
individual  must  depend  on  the  rapid  change  of  attention  from 
one  to  the  other  to  keep  them  going,  the  results  obtained  are 
likely  to  be  poor  and  the  fatigue  is  great.     The    attempt   to 


SS  HOW  TO  TEACH 

take  notes  while  listening  to  a  lecture  is  of  this  order,  and  hence 
the  unsatisfactoriness  of  the  results. 

The  third  fact  which  helps  to  explain  the  apparent  contradic- 
tion under  discussion  is  closely  related  to  this  one.  It  is  possible 
when  engaged  with  one  object  to  have  several  questions  or  topics 
close  by  in  the  fringe  of  consciousness  so  that  one  or  the  other 
may  flash  to  the  focal  point  as  the  development  of  the  train  of 
thought  demands.  The  individual  is  apparently  considering 
many  questions  at  the  same  time,  when  in  reality  it  is  the  readi- 
ness of  these  associations  plus  the  oscillations  of  attention  that 
account  for  the  activity.  The  ability  to  do  this  sort  of  thing 
depends  partly  on  the  individual,  —  some  people  will  always  be 
''people  of  one  idea,"  —  but  training  and  experience  increase 
the  power.  The  child  who  in  the  primary  can  be  given  only 
one  thing  to  look  for  when  he  goes  on  his  excursion  may  grow 
into  the  youth  who  can  carry  half  a  dozen  different  questions  in 
his  mind  to  which  he  is  looking  for  answers. 

By  concentration  of  attention  is  meant  the  depth  of  the  atten- 
tion, and  this  is  measured  by  the  ease  with  which  a  person's 
attention  can  be  called  off  the  topic  with  which  he  is  concerned. 
The  concentration  may  be  so  great  that  the  individual  is  obliv- 
ious to  all  that  goes  on  about  him.  He  may  forget  engagements 
and  meals  because  of  his  absorption.  Sometimes  even  physical 
pain  is  not  strong  enough  to  distract  attention.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  concentration  may  be  so  slight  that  every  passing  sense 
impression,  every  irrelevant  association  called  up  by  the  topic, 
takes  the  attention  away  from  the  subject.  The  depth  of  concen- 
tration depends  upon  four  factors.  Certain  mental  and  physical 
conditions  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  concentration  of  atten- 
tion, and  these  will  be  discussed  later.  Individual  differences 
also  account  for  the  presence  or  absence  of  power  of  concentra- 
tion —  some  people  concentrate  naturally,  others  never  get 
very  deeply  into  any  topic.     Maturity  is  another  factor  that  is 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING  39 

influential.  A  little  child  cannot  have  great  concentration,  sim- 
ply because  he  has  not  had  experience  enough  to  give  him  many 
associations  with  which  to  work.  His  attention  is  easily  dis- 
tracted. Although  apparently  absorbed  in  play,  he  hears  what 
goes  on  about  him  and  notices  many  things  which  adults  sup- 
pose he  does  not  see.  This  same  lack  of  power  shows  itself  in 
any  one's  attention  when  a  new  subject  is  taken  up  if  he  has  few 
associations  with  it.  Of  course  this  means  that  other  things 
being  equal  the  older  one  is,  up  to  maturity  at  least,  the  greater 
one's  power  of  concentration.  Little  children  have  very  little 
power,  adolescents  a  great  deal,  but  it  is  the  adult  who  excels 
in  concentration.  Although  this  is  true,  the  fourth  factor,  that 
of  training  in  concentration,  does  much  toward  increasing  the 
power  before  full  maturity  is  reached.  One  can  learn  to  con- 
centrate just  as  he  can  learn  to  do  anything  else.  Habits  of 
concentration,  of  ignoring  distinctions  and  interruptions,  of 
putting  all  one's  power  into  the  work  in  hand,  are  just  as  possible 
as  habits  of  neatness.  The  laws  of  habit  formation  apply  in  the 
field  of  attention  just  as  truly  as  in  every  other  field  of  mental 
life.  Laboratory  experiments  prove  the  large  influence  which 
training  has  on  concentration  and  the  great  improvement  that 
can  be  made.  It  is  true  that  few  people  do  show  much  concen- 
tration of  attention  when  they  wish.  This  is  true  of  adults  as 
well  as  of  children.  They  have  formed  habits  of  working  at 
half  speed,  with  little  concentration  and  no  real  absorption  in  the 
topic.  This  method  of  work  is  both  wasteful  of  time  and  energy 
and  injurious  to  the  mental  stability  and  development  of  the 
individual.  Half-speed  work  due  to  lack  of  concentration  often 
means  that  a  student  will  stay  with  a  topic  and  fuss  over  it  for 
hours  instead  of  working  hard  and  then  dropping  it.  Teachers 
often  do  this  sort  of  thing  with  their  school  work.  Not  only 
are  the  results  less  satisfactory,  because  the  individual  never 
gets  deeply  enough  into  the  topic  to  really  get  what  is  there,  but 


40  «         HOW  TO  TEACH 

the  effect  on  him  is  bad.  It  is  like  ''constant  dripping  wears 
away  the  stone."  Children  must  be  taught  to  ''work  when  they 
work  and  play  when  they  play,"  if  they  are  to  have  habits  of 
concentration  as  adults. 

The  length  of  time  which  it  is  possible  to  attend  to  the  same 
object  or  idea  may  be  reckoned  in  seconds.  It  is  impossible  to 
hold  the  attention  on  an  object  for  any  appreciable  length  of 
time.  In  order  to  hold  the  attention  the  object  must  change. 
The  simple  experiment  of  trying  to  pay  attention  to  a  blot  of 
ink  or  the  idea  of  bravery  proves  that  change  is  necessary  if  the 
attention  is  not  to  wander.  What  happens  is  that  either  the 
attention  goes  to  something  else,  or  that  you  begin  thinking 
about  the  thing  in  question.  Of  course,  the  minute  you  begin 
thinking,  new  associations,  images,  memories,  come  flocking  in, 
and  the  attention  occupies  itself  with  each  in  turn.  All  may  con- 
cern the  idea  with  which  you  started  out,  but  the  very  fact  that 
these  have  been  added  to  the  mental  content  of  the  instant  makes 
the  percept  of  ink  blot  or  the  concept  of  bravery  different  from 
the  bare  thing  with  which  the  attention  began.  If  this  change 
and  fluctuation  of  the  mental  state  does  not  take  place,  the 
attention  flits  to  something  else.  The  length  of  time  that  the 
attention  may  be  engaged  with  a  topic  will  depend,  then,  upon 
the  number  of  associations  connected  with  it.  The  more  one 
knows  about  a  topic,  the  longer  he  can  attend  to  it.  If  it  is  a 
new  topic,  the  more  suggestive  it  is  in  calling  up  past  experience 
or  in  offering  incentive  for  experiment  or  application,  the  longer 
can  attention  stay  with  it.  Such  a  topic  is  usually  called  "in- 
teresting," but  upon  analysis  it  seems  that  this  means  that  for 
one  of  the  above  reasons  it  develops  or  changes  and  therefore 
holds  the  attention.  This  duration  of  attention  will  vary  in 
length  from  a  few  seconds  to  hours.  The  child  who  is  given  a 
problem  which  means  almost  nothing,  which  presents  a  blank 
wall  when  he  tries  to  attend  to  it,  which  offers  no  suggestions 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING  41 

for  solution,  is  an  illustration  of  the  first.  Attention  to  such  a 
problem  is  impossible ;  his  attention  must  wander.  The  genius 
who,  working  with  his  favorite  subject,  finds  a  multitude  of  trains 
of  thought  called  up  by  each  idea,  and  who  therefore  spends  hours 
on  one  topic  with  no  vacillation  of  attention,  is  an  illustration  of 
the  second. 

Attention  has  been  classified  according  to  the  kind  of  feeling 
which  accompanies  the  activity.  Sometimes  attention  comes 
spontaneously,  freely,  and  the  emotional  tone  is  that  accom- 
panying successful  activity.  On  the  other  hand,  sometimes  it 
has  to  be  forced  and  is  accompanied  by  feelings  of  strain  and 
annoyance.  The  first  type  is  called  Free  ^  attention ;  the  second 
is  Forced  attention. 

Free  attention  is  given  when  the  object  of  attention  satisfies 
a  need ;  when  the  situation  attended  to  provides  the  necessary 
material  for  some  self-activity.  The  activity  of  the  individual 
at  that  second  needs  something  that  the  situation  in  question 
gives,  and  hence  free,  spontaneous  attention  results.  Forced 
attention  is  given  when  there  is  a  lack  of  just  such  feeling  of  need 
in  connection  with  the  object  of  attention.  It  does  not  satisfy 
the  individual  —  it  is  distinct  from  his  desires  at  the  time.  He 
attends  only  because  of  fear  of  the  results  if  he  does  not,  and 
hence  the  condition  is  one  of  strain.  All  play  takes  free  atten- 
tion. Work  which  holds  the  worker  because  it  is  satisfying 
also  takes  free  attention.  Work  which  has  in  it  the  element  of 
drudgery  needs  forced  attention.  The  girl  making  clothes  for 
her  doll,  the  boy  building  his  shack  in  the  woods,  the  inventor 
working  over  his  machine,  the  student  absorbed  in  his  history 
lesson,  —  all  these  are  freely  attending  to  the  thing  in  hand.  The 
girl  running  her  seam  and  hating  it,  the  boy  building  the  chicken 
coop  while  wishing  to  be  at  the  ball  game,  the  inventor  working 

*  This  is  synonymous  with  James's  Involuntary  Attention,  Angell's  Non- Volun- 
tary Attention,  and  Titchener's  Secondary-Passive  Attention. 


42  HOW  TO  TEACH 

over  his  machine  when  his  thoughts  and  desires  are  with  his 
sick  wife,  the  student  trying  to  study  his  history  when  the  debate 
in  the  civics  club  is  fiUing  his  mind,  —  these  are  cases  when  forced 
attention  would  probably  be  necessary. 

It  is  very  evident  that  there  is  no  one  situation  which  will 
necessarily  take  either  free  or  forced  attention  because  the  deter- 
mining factor  is  not  in  the  situation  per  se,  but  in  the  relation  it 
bears  to  the  mind  engaged  with  it.  Sometimes  the  same  object 
will  call  forth  forced  attention  from  one  person  and  free  from 
another.  Further,  the  same  object  may  at  one  time  demand 
free  attention  and  at  another  time  forced  attention  from  the 
same  person,  depending  on  the  operation  of  other  factors.  It  is 
also  true  that  attention  which  was  at  first  forced  may  change  into 
free  as  the  activity  is  persevered  in. 

Although  these  two  types  of  attention  are  discussed  as  if  they 
were  entirely  separated  from  each  other,  as  if  one  occurred  in 
this  situation  and  the  other  in  that,  still  as  a  matter  of  fact  the 
actual  conditions  involve  an  interplay  between  the  two.  It  is 
seldom  true  that  free  attention  is  given  for  any  great  length  of 
time  without  flashes  of  forced  attention  being  scattered  through 
it.  Often  the  forced  attention  may  be  needed  for  certain  parts 
of  the  work,  although  as  a  whole  it  may  take  free  attention.  The 
same  thing  is  true  of  occasions  when  forced  attention  is  used. 
There  are  periods  in  the  activity  when  free  attention  will  carry 
the  worker  on.  Every  activity,  then,  is  likely  to  be  complex 
so  far  as  the  kind  of  attention  used,  but  it  is  also  characterized 
by  the  predominance  of  one  or  the  other  type. 

The  question  as  to  the  conditions  which  call  out  each  type  of 
attention  is  an  important  one.  As  has  already  been  said,  free 
attention  is  given  when  the  situation  attended  to  satisfies  a 
need.  Physiologically  stated,  free  attention  is  given  when  a 
neurone  series  which  is  ready  to  act  is  called  into  activity.  The 
situations  which  do  this,  other  things  being  equal,  will  be  those 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING  43 

which  appeal  to  some  instinctive  tendency  or  capacity,  or  to  the 
self-activity  or  the  personal  experience  of  the  individual  and 
which  therefore  are  in  accord  with  his  stage  of  development  and 
his  experience.  Forced  attention  is  necessary  when  the  neurone 
tracts  used  by  the  attention  are  for  some  reason  unready  to 
act.  Situations  to  which  attention  is  given  through  fear  of 
punishment,  or  when  the  activity  involves  a  choice  of  ideal  ends 
as  opposed  to  personal  desires,  or  when  some  instinctive  tendency 
must  be  inhibited  or  its  free  activity  is  blocked  or  interfered  with ,  or 
when  the  laws  of  growth  and  experience  are  violated,  take  forced 
attention.  Of  course  fatigue,  disease,  and  monotony  are  fre- 
quent breeders  of  forced  attention. 

From  the  above  discussion  it  must  be  evident  that  one  of  the 
chief  characteristics  of  free  attention  is  its  unity.  The  mental 
activity  of  the  person  is  all  directed  along  one  line,  that  which 
leads  to  the  satisfying  of  the  need.  It  is  unified  by  the  appeal  the 
situation  makes.  As  a  result  of  such  a  state  the  attention  is 
likely  to  be  concentrated,  and  can  be  sustained  over  a  long  period. 
Of  course  this  means  that  the  work  accomplished  under  such 
conditions  will  be  greater  in  amount,  more  thorough,  and  more 
accurate  than  could  be  true  were  there  less  unity  in  the  process. 
The  opposite  in  all  respects  is  true  of  forced  attention.  It  is 
present  when  there  is  divided  interest.  The  topic  does  not  appeal 
to  the  need  of  the  individual.  He  attends  to  it  because  he  must. 
Part  of  his  full  power  of  attention  is  given  to  keeping  himself 
to  the  work,  leaving  only  a  part  to  be  given  to  the  work  itself. 
If  there  is  any  other  object  in  the  field  of  attention  which  is 
particularly  attractive,  as  there  usually  is,  that  claims  its  share, 
and  the  attention  is  still  further  divided.  Divided  attention 
cannot  be  concentrated ;  it  cannot  last  long.  The  very  strain 
and  effort  involved  makes  it  extremely  fatiguing.  The  results 
of  work  done  under  such  conditions  must  be  poor.  There  can  be 
but  little  thoroughness,  for  the  worker  will  do  just  as  much  as  he 


44  HOW  TO  TEACH 

must  to  pass  muster,  and  no  more.  Inaccuracy  and  superficiality 
will  characterize  such  work.  Just  as  training  in  giving  concen- 
trated attention  results  in  power  along  that  line,  so  frequent 
necessity  for  forced  attention  develops  habits  of  divided  attention 
which  in  time  will  hinder  the  development  of  any  concentration. 
From  a  psychological  viewpoint  there  can  be  no  question  but 
what  free  attention  is  the  end  to  be  sought  by  workers  of  all 
kinds.  It  is  an  absolutely  false  notion  that  things  are  easy  when 
free  attention  is  present.  It  is  only  when  free  attention  is 
present  that  results  worth  mentioning  are  accompHshed.  It  is 
only  under  such  conditions  that  the  worker  is  willing  to  try  and 
try  again,  and  put  up  with  disappointment  and  failure,  to  use  his 
ingenuity  and  skill  to  the  utmost,  to  go  out  of  his  way  for  material 
or  suggestions ;  in  other  words,  to  put  himself  into  his  work  in 
such  a  way  that  it  is  truly  educational.  On  the  other  hand, 
forced  attention  has  its  own  value  and  could  not  be  dispensed 
with  in  the  development  of  a  human  being.  Its  value  is  that  of 
means  to  end  —  not  that  of  an  end  in  itself.  It  is  only  as  it 
leads  into  free  attention  that  forced  attention  is  truly  valuable. 
In  that  place  the  part  it  plays  is  tremendous  because  things  are 
as  they  are.  There  will  always  be  materials  which  will  not  appeal 
to  a  need  in  some  individual  because  of  lack  of  capacity  or  experi- 
ence; there  will  always  be  parts  of  various  activities  and  pro- 
cesses which  seem  unnecessary  and  a  waste  of  time  to  some 
worker ;  there  will  always  be  choices  to  be  made  between  instinc- 
tive desires  and  ideal  needs,  and  in  each  case  forced  attention  is 
the  only  means,  perhaps,  by  which  the  necessary  conditions  can 
be  acquired  that  make  possible  free  attention.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  forced  attention  should  be  called  into  play  only 
when  needed.  When  needed,  it  should  be  demanded  rigorously, 
but  the  sooner  the  individual  in  question  can  pass  from  it  to  the 
other  type,  the  better.  This  is  true  in  all  fields  whether  intellec- 
tual or  moral. 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING  45 

A  second  classification  of  attention  has  been  suggested  accord- 
ing  to  the  answer  to  the  question  as  to  why  attention  is  given. 
Sometimes  attention  is  given  simply  because  the  material  itself 
demands  it;  sometimes  for  some  ulterior  reason.  The  former 
type  is  called  immediate  or  intrinsic  attention;  the  latter  is 
called  derived,  mediate,  or  extrinsic  attention.  The  former  is 
given  to  the  situation  for  its  own  sake;  the  latter  because  of 
something  attached  to  it.  Forced  attention  is  always  derived ; 
free  attention  may  be  either  immediate  or  derived.  It  is  imme- 
diate and  derived  free  attention  that  needs  further  discussion. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  no  sharp  line  of  division 
between  immediate  and  derived  attention.  Sometimes  it  is 
perfectly  evident  that  the  attention  is  given  for  the  sake  of  the 
material  —  at  other  times  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  it  is 
the  something  beyond  the  material  that  holds  the  attention. 
But  in  big,  complex  situations  it  is  not  so  evident.  For  instance, 
the  musician  composing  just  for  the  love  of  it  is  an  example  of 
immediate  attention,  while  the  small  boy  working  his  arithmetic 
examples  with  great  care  in  order  to  beat  his  seatmate  is  surely 
giving  derived  attention.  But  under  some  conditions  the 
motives  are  mixed  and  the  attention  may  fluctuate  from  the 
value  of  the  material  itself  to  the  values  to  be  derived  from  it. 
However  this  may  be,  at  the  two  extremes  there  is  a  clear-cut 
difference  between  these  two  types  of  attention.  The  value  of 
rewards  and  incentives  depends  on  the  psychology  of  derived 
free  attention,  while  that  of  punishment  and  deterrents  is 
wrapped  up  with  derived  forced  attention. 

Immediate  free  attention  is  the  more  valuable  of  the  two  types 
because  it  is  the  most  highly  unified  and  most  strongly  dynamic 
of  all  the  attention  types.  The  big  accomplishments  of  human 
lives  have  been  brought  to  pass  through  this  kind  of  attention. 
It  is  the  kind  the  little  child  gives  to  his  play  —  the  activity 
itself  is  worth  while.    So  with  the  artist,  the  inventor,  the  poet,  the 


I 


46  HOW  TO  TEACH 

teacher,  the  physician,  the  architect,  the  banker  —  to  be  engaged 
in  that  particular  activity  satisfies.  But  this  is  not  true  of  all 
artists,  bankers,  etc.,  nor  with  the  others  all  the  time.  Even 
for  the  child  at  play,  sometimes  conditions  arise  when  the 
particular  part  of  the  activity  does  not  seem  worth  while  in  itself ; 
then  if  it  is  to  be  continued,  another  kind  of  attention  must  be 
brought  in  —  derived  attention.  This  illustration  shows  the 
place  of  derived  attention  as  a  means  to  an  end  —  the  same  part 
played  by  forced  attention  in  its  relation  to  free.  Derived 
attention  must  needs  be  characteristic  of  much  of  the  activity 
of  human  beings.  People  have  few  well-developed  capacities, 
and  there  are  many  kinds  of  things  they  are  required  to  do.  If 
these  are  to  be  done  with  free  attention,  heartily,  it  will  only  be 
because  of  some  value  that  is  worth  while  that  is  attached  to 
the  necessary  activity.  As  activities  grow  complex  and  as  the 
results  of  activities  grow  remote,  the  need  for  something  to  carry 
over  the  attention  to  the  parts  of  the  activity  that  are  seen  to  be 
worth  while  in  the  first  place,  or  to  the  results  in  the  second, 
grows  imperative.  This  need  is  filled  by  derived  attention,  and 
here  it  shows  its  value  as  means  to  an  end,  but  it  is  only  when 
the  need  for  this  carrier  disappears,  and  the  activity  as  a  whole 
for  itself  seems  worth  while,  that  the  best  results  are  obtained. 
There  is  a  very  great  difference  between  the  kinds  of  motives 
or  values  chosen  for  derived  attention,  and  their  value  varies  in 
accordance  with  the  following  principles.  Incentives  should  be 
closely  connected  naturally  with  the  subject  to  which  they  are 
attached.  They  should  be  suited  to  the  development  of  the 
child  and  be  natural  rather  than  artificial.  Their  appeal  should 
be  permanent,  i.e.,  should  persist  in  the  same  situation  outside 
of  school.  They  should  really  stimulate  those  to  whom  they  are 
offered.  They  should  not  be  too  attractive  in  themselves. 
Applying  these  principles  it  would  seem  that  derived  interests 
that  have  their  source  in  instincts,  in  special  capacities,  or  in 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING     47 

correlation  of  subjects  are  of  the  best  type,  while  such  extremely 
artificial  incentives  as  prizes,  half  holidays,  etc.,  are  among  the 
poorest. 

The  value  of  derived  attention  is  that  it  gets  the  work  done  or 
the  habit  formed.  Of  course  the  hope  is  always  there  that  it 
will  pass  over  into  the  immediate  type,  but  if  it  does  not,  at  least 
results  are  obtained.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  results 
may  also  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  forced  attention,  which  is 
also  derived.  Both  derived  free  attention  and  forced  attention 
are  means  to  an  end.  The  question  as  to  the  comparative  value 
of  the  two  must  be  answered  in  favor  of  the  derived  free  atten- 
tion. The  chief  reasons  for  this  conclusion  are  as  follows.  First, 
derived  free  attention  is  likely  to  be  more  unified  than  forced 
attention.  Second,  it  arouses  greater  self-activity  on  the  part 
of  the  worker.  Third,  the  emotional  tone  is  that  of  being 
satisfied  instead  of  strain.  Fourth,  it  is  more  likely  to  lead  to 
the  immediate  attention  which  is  its  end.  Despite  these  advan- 
tages of  derived  free  attention  over  forced  attention,  it  still  has 
some  of  the  same  disadvantages  that  forced  attention  has.  The 
chief  of  these  is  that  it  also  may  result  in  division  of  energy.  If 
the  means  for  gaining  the  attention  is  nothing  but  sugar  coating, 
if  it  results  in  the  mere  entertainment  of  the  worker,  there  is 
every  likelihood  that  the  attention  will  be  divided  between  the 
two.  The  other  disadvantage  is  that  because  of  the  attractive- 
ness of  the  means  used  to  gain  attention  it  may  be  given  just 
so  long  as  the  incentive  remains,  and  no  longer.  These  difficul- 
ties may  be  largely  overcome,  however,  by  the  application  of 
the  principles  governing  good  incentives.  This  must  mean 
that  the  choice  of  types  of  attention  and  therefore  the  provision 
of  situations  calling  them  out  should  be  in  this  order :  immediate 
free  attention,  derived  free  attention,  forced  attention.  All 
three  are  necessary  in  the  education  of  any  child,  but  each  should 
be  used  in  its  proper  place. 


48   .  HOW  TO  TEACH 

The  conditions  which  insure  the  best  attention  of  whatever 
type  have  to  do  with  both  physical  and  mental  adjustments. 
On  the  physical  side  there  is  need  for  the  adaptation  of  the  sense 
organ  and  the  body  to  the  situation.  For  this  adaptation  to  be 
effective  the  environmental  conditions  must  be  controlled  by  the 
laws  of  hygiene.  A  certain  amount  of  bodily  freedom  yields 
better  results  than  rigidity  because  the  latter  draws  energy  from 
the  task  in  hand  for  purposes  of  inhibition.  On  the  mental  side 
there  is  need  for  preparation  in  terms  of  readiness  of  the  nerve 
tracts  to  be  used.  James  calls  this  ^'ideational"  preparation. 
This  simply  means  that  one  can  attend  better  if  he  knows  some- 
thing of  what  he  is  to  attend  to.  Experimental  evidence  proves 
without  doubt  that  if  the  subject  knows  that  he  is  to  see  a  color, 
instead  of  a  word,  his  perception  of  it  is  much  more  rapid  and 
accurate  than  if  he  does  not  have  this  preparation.  This  same 
result  is  obtained  in  much  more  complex  sensory  situations, 
and  it  also  holds  when  the  situation  is  intellectual.  Contrary 
to  expectation,  great  quietness  is  not  the  best  condition  for  the 
maximurn  of  attention;  a  certain  amount  of  distraction  is 
beneficial. 

The  problem  of  interest  and  of  attention,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  teaching,  is  not  simply  to  secure  attention,  but  rather  to 
have  the  attention  fixed  upon  those  activities  which  are  most 
desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  realizing  the  aim  or  purpose  of 
education.  As  has  already  been  suggested,  children  are  con- 
stantly attending  to  something.  They  instinctively  respond  to 
the  very  great  variety  of  stimuli  with  which  they  come  in  con- 
tact. Our  schools  seek  to  provide  experiences  which  are  valu- 
able. In  school  work  when  we  are  successful  children  attend 
to  those  stimuli  which  promise  most  for  the  formation  of  habits, 
or  the  growth  in  understanding  and  appreciation  which  will  fit 
them  for  participation  in  our  social  life.  We  seek  constantly  in 
our  work  as  teachers  to  secure  either  free  or  forced  attention  to 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING  49 

the  particular  part  of  our  courses  of  study  or  to  the  particular 
experiences  which  are  allotted  to  the  grade  or  class  which  we 
teach.  One  of  the  very  greatest  difficulties  in  securing  attention 
upon  the  part  of  a  class  is  found  in  the  variety  of  experiences 
which  they  have  already  enjoyed,  and  the  differences  in  the 
strength  of  the  appeal  which  the  particular  situation  may  make 
upon  the  several  members  of  the  group.  In  class  teaching  we 
have  constantly  to  vary  our  appeal  and  to  differentiate  our 
work  to  suit  the  individual  differences  represented  in  the  class, 
if  we  would  succeed  in  holding  the  attention  of  even  the  majority 
of  the  children. 

Boys  and  girls  do  their  best  work  only  when  they  concentrate 
their  attention  upon  the  work  to  be  done.  One  of  the  greatest 
fallacies  that  has  ever  crept  into  our  educational  thought  is  that 
which  suggests  that  there  is  great  value  in  having  people  work 
in  fields  in  which  they  are  not  interested,  and  in  which  they  do 
not  freely  give  their  attention.  Any  one  who  is  familiar  with 
children,  or  with  grown-ups,  must  know  that  it  is  only  when 
interest  is  at  a  maximum  that  the  effort  put  forth  approaches 
the  limit  of  capacity  set  by  the  individual's  abiHty.  Boys  con- 
centrate their  attention  upon  baseball  or  upon  fishing  to  a  degree 
which  demands  of  them  a  maximum  of  effort.  A  boy  may  spend 
hours  at  a  time  seeking  to  perfect  himself  in  pitching,  batting,  or 
fielding.  He  may  be  uncomfortable  a  large  part  of  the  time,  he 
may  suffer  considerable  pain,  and  yet  continue  in  his  practice 
by  virtue  of  his  great  enthusiasm  for  perfecting  himself  in  the 
game.  Interest  of  a  not  dissimilar  sort  leads  a  man  who  desires 
position,  or  power,  or  wealth,  to  concentrate  his  attention  upon 
the  particular  field  of  his  endeavor  to  the  exclusion  of  almost 
everything  else.  Indeed,  men  almost  literally  kill  themselves  in 
the  effort  which  they  make  to  achieve  these  social  distinctions  or 
rewards.  We  may  not  hope  always  to  secure  so  high  a  degree  of 
concentration  of  attention  or  of  effort,  but  it  is  only  as  we 


5©  HOW  TO  TEACH 

approach  a  situation  in  which  children  are  interested,  and  in 
which  they  freely  give  their  attention  to  the  subject  in  hand, 
that  we  can  claim  to  be  most  successful  in  our  teaching. 

The  teacher  who  is  able  in  beginning  reading  to  discover  to 
children  the  tool  which  will  enable  them  to  get  the  familiar  story 
or  rhyme  from  the  book  may  hope  to  get  a  quality  of  attention 
which  could  never  be  brought  about  by  forcing  them  to  attend 
to  formal  phonetic  drill.  The  teacher  of  biology  who  has  been 
able  to  awaken  enthusiasm  for  the  investigation  of  plant  and 
animal  life,  and  who  has  allowed  children  to  conduct  their  own 
investigations  and  to  carry  out  their  own  experiments,  may  hope 
for  a  type  of  attention  which  is  never  present  in  the  carrying  out 
of  the  directions  of  the  laboratory  manual  or  in  naming  or  classi- 
fying plants  or  animals  merely  as  a  matter  of  memory.  Children 
who  are  at  work  producing  a  school  play  will  accomplish  more  in 
the  study  of  the  history  in  which  they  seek  to  discover  a  dramatic 
situation,  by  virtue  of  the  concentration  of  attention  given,  than 
they  would  in  reciting  many  lessons  in  which  they  seek  to  re- 
member the  paragraphs  or  pages  which  they  have  read.  The  boy 
who  gives  his  attention  to  the  production  of  a  story  for  his  school 
paper  will  work  harder  than  one  who  is  asked  to  write  a  compo- 
sition covering  two  pages.  Children  who  are  allowed  to  pre- 
pare for  the  entertainment  of  the  members  of  their  class  a  story 
with  which  they  alone  are  familiar  will  give  a  quality  of  attention 
to  the  work  in  hand  which  is  never  secured  when  all  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class  are  asked  to  reproduce  a  story  which  the  teacher 
has  read. 

It  is  necessary  at  times  to  have  children  give  forced  attention. 
There  are  some  things  to  be  accomplished  that  must  be  done, 
regardless  of  our  success  in  securing  free  attention.  It  is  entirely 
conceivable  that  some  boy  or  girl  may  not  want  to  learn  his 
multiplication  tables,  or  his  words  in  spelling,  or  his  conjugation 
or  declension  in  French,  and  that  all  that  the  teacher  has  done 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING  51 

may  fail  to  arouse  any  great  amount  of  interest  or  enthusiasm 
for  the  work  in  question.  In  these  cases,  and  in  many  others 
which  might  be  cited,  the  necessity  for  the  particular  habit  may 
be  so  great  as  to  demand  that  every  pupil  do  the  work  or  form 
the  habit  in  question.  In  these  cases  we  may  not  infrequently 
hope  that  after  having  given  forced  attention  to  the  work  of  the 
school,  children  may  in  time  come  to  understand  the  importance 
of  the  experiences  which  they  are  having,  or  even  become  in- 
terested in  the  work  for  its  own  sake.  It  is  not  infrequently 
true  that  after  a  period  of  forced  attention  there  follows  a  time 
during  which,  on  account  of  the  value  which  children  are  able 
to  understand  as  attached  to  or  belonging  to  the  particular 
exercise,  they  give  free  derived  attention.  Many  boys  and  girls 
have  worked  through  their  courses  in  science  or  in  modern  lan- 
guages because  they  believed  that  these  subjects  would  prove 
valuable  not  only  in  preparing  them  for  college,  but  in  giving 
them  a  wider  outlook  on  life.  Their  attention  was  of  the  free^^ 
derived  type.  Later  on  some  of  these  same  pupils  have  become 
tremendously  enthusiastic  in  their  work  in  the  fields  in  question, 
and  have  found  such  great  satisfaction  in  the  work  itself,  that 
their  attention  might  properly  be  characterized  as  free  imme- 
diate attention. 

The  importance  of  making  children  conscious  of  their  power  of 
concentrating  their  attention  needs  to  be  kept  constantly  in 
mind.  Exercises  in  which  children  are  asked  to  do  as  much  as 
they  can  in  a  period  of  five  or  ten  minutes  may  be  used  to  teach 
children  what  concentration  of  attention  is  and  of  the  economy 
involved  in  work  done  under  these  conditions.  The  trouble 
with  a  great  many  adults,  as  well  as  with  children,  is  that  they 
have  never  learned  what  it  is  to  work  up  to  the  maximum  of 
their  capacity.  All  too  frequently  in  our  attempts  to  teach 
children  in  classes  we  neglect  to  provide  even  a  sufficient 
amount  of   work   to  demand  of   the  more  able  members  of 


52  HOW  TO  TEACH 

the  group  any  considerable  amount  of  continued,  concentrated 
attention. 

We  seek  in  our  work  as  teachers  not  only  to  secure  a  maximum 
of  attention  to  the  fields  of  work  in  which  children  are  engaged, 
but  also  to  arouse  interests  and  enthusiasms  which  will  last 
after  school  days  are  over.  We  think  of  interest  often,  and 
properly  too,  as  the  means  employed  to  secure  a  maximum  of 
attention,  and,  in  consequence,  a  maximum  of  accomplishment. 
It  is  worth  while  to  think  often  in  our  work  in  terms  of  interest 
as  the  end  to  be  secured.  Children  should  become  sufficiently 
interested  in  some  of  the  subjects  that  we  teach  to  care  to  be 
students  in  these  fields,  or  to  find  enjoyment  in  further  work  or 
activity  along  these  Hues,  either  as  a  matter  of  recreation  or, 
not  infrequently,  as  a  means  of  discovering  their  true  vocation 
in  Hfe.  That  teacher  who  has  aroused  sufficient  interest  in 
music  to  enable  the  student  of  musical  ability  to  venture  all  of 
the  hard  work  which  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  become  a 
skillful  musician,  has  made  possibly  his  greatest  contribution  by 
arousing  interest  or  creating  enthusiasm.  The  teacher,  whose 
enthusiasm  in  science  has  led  a  boy  to  desire  to  continue  in  this 
field,  even  to  the  extent  of  influencing  him  to  undertake  work  in 
an  engineering  school,  may  be  satisfied,  not  so  much  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  his  pupil  in  the  field  of  science,  as  in  the  enthusiasm 
which  has  carried  him  forward  to  more  significant  work.  Even 
for  children  who  go  no  farther  than  the  elementary  school, 
interest  in  history,  or  geography,  in  nature  study,  or  in  litera- 
ture, may  mean  throughout  the  Hfe  of  the  individuals  taught  a 
better  use  of  leisure  time  and  an  enjoyment  of  the  nobler  pleas- 
ures. 

Successful  teaching  in  any  part  of  our  school  system  demands 
an  adjustment  in  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done,  to  the  abiKties, 
and  even  to  the  interest  of  individual  children.  Much  may 
be  accomplished  by  the  organization  of  special  classes  or  groups  in 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST  IN  TEACHING  53 

large  school  systems,  but  even  under  the  most  favorable  condi- 
tions children  cannot  be  expected  to  work  up  to  the  maximum 
of  their  capacity  except  as  teachers  recognize  these  differences 
in  interest  and  in  ability,  and  make  assignments  and  conduct 
exercises  which  take  account  of  these  differences. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  do  all  children  attend  when  the  teacher  raps  on  the  desk,  when 
she  writes  on  the  board,  when  some  one  opens  the  door  and  comes  into  the 
room? 

2.  Some  teachers  are  constantly  rapping  with  their  pencils  and  raising 
their  voices  in  order  to  attract  attention.  What  possible  weakness  is  in- 
dicated by  this  procedure  ? 

3.  Why  do  adults  attend  to  fewer  things  than  do  children? 

4.  In  what  sense  is  it  possible  to  attend  to  two  things  at  the  same 
time? 

5.  Why  are  children  less  able  to  concentrate  their  attention  than  are 
most  adults? 

6.  Will  a  boy  or  girl  in  your  class  be  more  or  less  easily  distracted  as  he 
gives  free  attention  or  forced  attention  to  the  work  in  hand  ? 

7.  What  educational  value  is  attached  to  an  exercise  which  requires 
that  a  boy  sit  at  his  desk  and  work,  even  upon  something  in  which  he  is 
not  very  much  interested,  for  twenty  minutes  ? 

8.  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  we  form  the  habit  of  concentrating  our 
attention  ? 

9.  Why  is  it  wrong  to  extend  a  lesson  beyond  the  period  during  which 
children  are  able  to  concentrate  their  attention  upon  the  work  in  hand, 
or  beyond  the  period  during  which  they  do  concentrate  their  attention  ? 

10.  How  is  it  possible  to  extend  the  period  devoted  to  a  lesson  in  reading, 
or  in  geography,  or  in  Latin,  beyond  the  time  required  to  read  a  story  or 
draw  a  map,  or  translate  a  paragraph? 

11.  Why  is  it  possible  to  have  longer  recitation  periods  in  the  upper 
grades  and  in  the  high  school  than  in  the  primary  school  ? 

12.  Give  examples  from  your  class  work  of  free  attention;  of  forced 
attention;   of  free  derived  attention. 

13.  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  we  work  hardest  when  we  give  free 
attention  ? 


54  HOW  TO  TEACH 

14.  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  we  work  hardest  when  we  give  forced 
attention  ? 

15.  Can  you  give  any  example  of  superficiaHty  or  inaccuracy  which  has 
resuhed  from  divided  attention  upon  the  part  of  any  member  of  one  of 
your  classes  ? 

16.  Does  free  attention  imply  lack  of  effort? 

17.  Name  incidents  which  you  think  might  properly  be  offered  boys  and 
girls  in  order  to  secure  free  derived  attention. 

18.  Can  you  cite  any  example  in  your  teaching  in  which  children  have 
progressed  from  forced  to  free  attention  ? 

19.  What  interests  have  been  developed  in  your  classes  which  you  think 
may  make  possible  the  giving  of  free  attention  in  the  field  in  question,  even 
after  school  days  are  over  ? 

20.  How  can  you  teach  children  what  it  is  to  concentrate  their  attention 
and  the  value  of  concentrated  attention? 


m 

THE   FORMATION  OF  HABITS 

Habit  in  its  simplest  form  is  the  tendency  to  do,  think,  or  act 
as  one  has  done,  thought,  or  acted  in  the  past.  It  is  the  tendency 
to  repeat  activities  of  all  kinds.  It  is  the  tendency  which  makes 
one  inclined  to  do  the  familiar  action  rather  than  a  new  one.  In 
a  broader  sense,  habit  formation  means  learning.  It  is  a  state- 
ment of  the  fact  that  conduct  is  modifiable  and  that  such  modi- 
fications may  become  permanent. 

The  fact  of  learning  depends  physiologically  on  the  plasticity 
of  the  nervous  system.  The  neurones,  particularly  those  con- 
cerned with  intellectual  life,  are  not  only  sensitive  to  nerve 
currents  but  are  modified  by  them.  The  point  where  the  greatest, 
change  seems  to  take  place  is  at  the  synapsis,  but  what  this  modi- 
fication is,  no  one  knows.  There  are  several  theories  offered  as 
explanations  of  what  happens,  but  no  one  of  them  has  been 
generally  accepted,  although  the  theory  of  chemical  change  seems 
to  be  receiving  the  strongest  support  at  present.  There  can  be 
no  disagreement,  however,  as  to  the  effects  of  this  change,  what- 
ever it  may  be.  Currents  originally  passing  with  difficulty  over 
a  certain  conduction  unit  later  pass  with  greater  and  greater 
ease.  The  resistance  which  seems  at  first  to  be  present  grad- 
ually disappears,  and  to  that  extent  is  the  conduct  modified. 
This  same  element  of  plasticity  accounts  for  the  breaking  of 
habits.  In  this  case  the  action  is  double,  for  it  implies  the  disuse 
of  certain  connections  which  have  been  made  and  the  form- 
ing of  others;  for  the  breaking  of  a  bad  habit  means  the 
beginning  of  a  good  one.  . 

S5 


56  HOW  TO  TEACH 

The  plasticity  of  neurone  groups  seems  to  vary  in  two  respects 
—  as  to  modifiability  and  as  to  power  to  hold  modifications. 
The  neurone  groups  controlling  the  reflex  and  physiological  oper- 
ations are  least  easily  modified,  while  those  controlHng  the  higher 
mental  processes  are  most  easily  modified.  The  neurone  groups 
Controlling  the  instincts  hold  a  middle  place.  So  far  as  per- 
manence goes,  connections  between  sensorimotor  neurone 
groups  seem  to  hold  modifications  longer  than  do  connections 
between  either  associative-motor  or  associative-association. 

It  is  probably  because  of  this  fact  that  habit  in  the  minds  of 
so  many  people  refers  to  some  physical  activity.  Of  course  this 
is  a  misconception.  Wherever  the  nervous  system  is  employed, 
habits  are  formed.  There  are  intellectual,  moral,  emotional, 
temperamental  habits,  just  as  truly  as  physical  habits.  In  the 
intellectual  field  every  operation  that  involves  association  or 
memory  also  involves  habits.  Good  temper,  or  the  reverse, 
truthfulness,  patriotism,  thoughtfulness  for  others,  open-minded- 
ness,  are  as  much  matters  of  learning  and  of  habit  as  talking  or 
skating  or  sewing.  Habit  is  found  in  all  three  lines  of  mental 
development :    intellect,  character,  and  skill. 

Not  only  does  the  law  of  habit  operate  in  all  fields  of  mental 
activity,  but  the  characteristics  which  mark  its  operation  are 
the  same.  Two  of  these  are  important.  ,  In  the  first  place, 
habit  formation  results  in  a  lessening  of  attention  to  the  process. 
Any  process  that  is  habitual  can  be  taken  care  of  by  a  minimum 
of  attention.  In  other  words,  it  need  no  longer  be  in  the  focal 
point,  but  can  be  relegated  to  the  fringe.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  modification  of  the  neurone  tract  focal  attention  is  often 
necessary,  but  as  it  progresses  less  and  less  attention  is  needed 
until  the  activity  becomes  automatic,  apparently  running  by 
itself.  Not  all  habits  reach  this  stage  of  perfection,  but  this 
is  the  general  tendency.  This  lessening  of  the  need  for  attention 
means  that  less  energy  is  used  by  the  activity,  and  the  individual 


THE  FORMATION  OF  HABITS  57 

doing  the  work  is  less  lively  to  be  fatigued.  In  the  second  place, 
habit  tends  to  make  the  process  more  and  more  sure  in  its  results. 
As  the  resistance  is  removed  from  the  synapses,  and  the  one  par- 
ticular series  of  units  come  to  act  more  and  more  as  a  unit,  the 
current  shoots  along  the  path  with  no  sidetracking,  and  the 
act  is  performed  or  the  thought  reached  unwaveringly  with  very 
little  chance  of  error.  If  the  habit  being  formed  is  that  of 
writing,  the  appropriate  movements  are  made  with  no  hesitation, 
and  the  chances  that  certain  ones  will  be  made  the  first  time 
increase  in  probability.  This  means  a  saving  of  time  and  an 
increase  in  confidence  as  to  the  results. 

A  consideration  of  these  characteristics  of  habits  makes  clear 
its  dangers  as  well  as  its  values.  The  fact  that  habit  is  based 
on  actual  changes  which  take  place  in  the  nervous  system,  that 
its  foundation  is  physical,  emphasizes  its  binding  power.  Most 
people  in  talking  and  thinking  of  habit  regard  it  as  something 
primarily  mental  in  nature  and  therefore  believe  all  that  is 
necessary  to  break  any  habit  is  the  sufficient  exercise  of  will 
power.  But  will  power,  however  strong,  cannot  break  actual 
physical  connections,  and  it  is  such  connections  that  bind  us  to 
a  certain  line  of  activity  instead  of  any  other,  when  once  the 
habit  is  formed.  It  is  just  as  logical  to  expect  a  car  which  is 
started  on  its  own  track  to  suddenly  go  off  on  to  another  track 
where  there  is  no  switch,  as  to  expect  a  nerve  current  traveling 
along,  its  habitual  conduction  unit  to  run  off  on  some  other  line 
of  nervous  discharge.  Habit  once  formed  binds  that  partic- 
ular line  of  thought  to  action,  either  good  or  bad.  Of  course 
habits  may  be  broken,  but  it  is  a  work  of  time  and  must  result 
from  definite  physical  changes.  Every  habit  formed  lessens 
the  likelihood  of  any  other  response  coming  in  that  particular 
situation.  Every  interest  formed,  every  act  of  skill  perfected, 
every  method  of  work  adopted,  every  principle  or  ideal  ac- 
cepted, limits  the  recognition  of  any  other  possible  line  of  action 


58  HOW  TO  TEACH 

in  that  situation.  Habit  binds  to  one  particular  response  and  at 
the  same  time  blinds  the  individual  to  any  other  alternative. 
The  danger  of  this  is  obvious.  If  the  habits  formed  are  bad  or 
wasteful  ones,  the  individual  is  handicapped  in  his  growth  until 
new  ones  can  be  formed.  On  the  other  hand,  habit  makes  for 
limitation. 

Despite  these  dangers,  habit  is  of  inestimable  value  in  the  de- 
velopment of  both  the  individual  and  the  human  race.  It  is 
through  it  that  all  learning  is  possible.  It  makes  possible  the 
preservation  of  our  social  inheritance.  As  James  says,  "Habit 
is  the  enormous  fly-wheel  of  society,  its  most  precious  conserva- 
tive agent."  Because  of  its  power  of  limitation  it  is  sometimes 
considered  the  foe  of  independence  and  originality,  but  in  reality 
it  is  the  only  road  to  progress.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
more  good  habits  a  person  has,  the  greater  the  probability  of  his 
doing  original  work.  The  genius  in  science  or  in  art  or  in  states- 
manship is  the  man  who  has  made  habitual  many  of  the  activities 
demanded  by  his  particular  field  and  who  therefore  has  time  and 
energy  left  for  the  kind  of  work  that  demands  thinking.  Habit 
won't  make  a  genius,  but  all  men  of  exceptional  ability  excel 
others  in  the  number  and  quality  of  their  habits  in  the  field  in 
which  they  show  power.  As  the  little  child  differs  from  the 
adult  in  the  number  and  quality  of  his  habits,  so  the  ordinary 
layman  differs  from  the  expert.  It  is  scarcity,  not  abundance, 
of  habits  that  forces  a  man  into  a  rut  and  keeps  him  mediocre. 
Just  as  the  three  year  old,  having  taken  four  or  five  times  as 
long  as  the  adult  to  dress  himself,  is  tired  out  at  the  end  of  the 
task,  so  the  amateur  in  literature  or  music  or  morals  as  compared 
with  the  expert.  The  more  habits  any  one  has  in  any  line,  the 
better  for  him,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  and  pro- 
ductivity, provided  that  the  habits  are  good  and  that  among 
them  is  found  the  habit  of  breaking  habits. 

The  two  great  laws  of  habit  formation  are  the  laws  of  exercise 


THE  FORMATION  OF  HABITS  59 

and  effect.  These  laws  apply  in  all  cases  of  habit  formation, 
whether  they  be  the  purposeless  habits  of  children  or  the  purposive 
habits  of  maturity.  The  law  of  exercise  says  that  the  oftener 
and  the  more  emphatically  a  certain  response  is  connected  with 
a  certain  situation,  the  more  likely  is  it  to  be  made  to  that  situation. 
The  two  factors  of  repetition  and  intensity  are  involved.  It  is 
a  common  observance  that  the  oftener  one  does  a  thing,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  better  he  does  it,  whether  it  be  good  or 
bad.  Drill  is  the  usual  method  adopted  by  all  classes  of  people 
for  habit  formation.  It  is  because  of  the  recognition  of  the 
value  of  repetition  that  the  old  maxim  of  ''Practice  makes  Per- 
fect" has  been  so  blindly  adhered  to.  Practice  may  make  per- 
fect, but  it  also  may  make  imperfect.  All  that  practice  can  do 
is  to  make  more  sure  and  automatic  the  activity,  whatever  it  is. 
It  cannot  alone  make  for  improvement.  A  child  becomes  more 
and  more  proficient  in  bad  writing  or  posture,  in  incorrect  work 
in  arithmetic  and  spelling,  with  practice  just  as  truly  as  under 
other  conditions  he  improves  in  the  same  activities.  Evidence 
from  school  experiments,  which  shows  that  as  many  as  40  per 
cent  of  the  children  examined  did  poorer  work  along  such  lines 
in  a  second  test  than  in  the  first  which  had  been  given  several 
months  earlier,  bears  witness  to  the  inability  of  mere  repetition 
to  get  "perfect"  results.  To  get  such  results  the  repetition  must 
be  only  of  the  improvements.  There  must  be  a  constant  varia- 
tion towards  the  ideal,  and  a  selection  of  just  those  variations 
for  practice,  if  perfect  as  well  as  invariable  results  are  to  be 
obtained. 

The  amount  of  repetition  necessary  in  the  formation  of  any 
given  habit  is  not  known.  It  will,  of  coijfrse,  vary  with  the  habit 
and  with  the  individual,  but  experimental  psychology  will  some 
day  have  something  to  offer  along  this  line.  We  could  make  a 
great  saving  if  we  knew,  even  approximately,  the  amount  of  prac- 
tice necessary  under  the  best  conditions  to  form  some  of  the  more 


6o  HOW  TO  TEACH 

simple  and  elementary  habits,  such  as  learning  the  facts  of  multi- 
plication. 

One  other  fact  in  connection  with  repetition  should  be  noted, 
namely,  that  the  exercise  given  any  connection  by  the  learner, 
freely,  of  his  own  initiative  counts  more  than  that  given  under 
purposive  learning.  This  method  of  learning  is  valuable  in  that 
it  is  incidental  and  often  saves  energy  and  possible  imitation  on 
the  part  of  the  child,  but  it  has  certain  drawbacks.  Habits 
formed  this  way  are  ingrained  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are 
very  difficult  to  modify.  They  were  not  consciously  attended 
to  when  they  were  formed,  and  hence  it  is  difficult  later  to  raise 
them  to  the  focal  point.  Hence  it  is  best  whenever  habits  are 
partial  and  will  need  to  be  modified  later,  or  when  the  habits 
must  later  be  rationalized,  or  when  bad  habits  must  be  broken, 
to  have  the  process  focalized  in  attention.  The  methods  of 
gaining  attention  have  already  been  discussed. 

In  the  second  place,  if  the  habit  being  formed  is  connected  with 
an  instinct,  the  element  of  intensity  is  added.  This,  of  course, 
means  that  a  connection  already  made  and  one  which  is  strongly 
ready  to  act  is  made  to  give  its  support  to  the  new  connection 
being  formed.  Of  course  the  instinct  chosen  for  this  purpose 
must  be  in  accord  with  the  particular  habit  and  with  the  nature 
of  the  learner.  They  may  vary  from  the  purely  personal  and 
physical  up  to  those  which  have  to  do  with  groups  and  intellectual 
reactions.  The  added  impetus  of  the  instinct  hastens  the  speed 
of  the  direction  or  supervision.  The  psychology  of  the  value 
of  self -activity  is  operative.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  the  two  kinds  of  exercise  must  be  of  the  same 
degree  of  accuracy  if  this  better  result  in  self-initiated  practice 
is  to  be  obtained. 

Not  only  is  it  true  that  repetition  makes  for  automaticity,  but 
intensity  is  also  an  aid.  Connections  which  are  made  emphati- 
cally as  well  as  often  tend  to  become  permanent.     This  is  par- 


THE  FORMATION  OF  HABITS  6i 

ticularly  true  of  mental  habits.  There  are  two  factors  of  impor- 
tance which  make  for  intensity  in  habit  formation.  First,  the 
focalization  of  attention  on  the  connections  being  made  adds 
intensity.  Bagley  in  his  discussion  of  this  topic  makes  "focali- 
zation in  attention"  a  necessity  in  all  habits.  Although  habits 
may  be  formed  without  such  concentration,  still  it  is  true  that 
if  attention  is  given  to  the  process,  time  is  saved ;  for  the  added 
intensity  secured  increases  the  speed  of  learning.  In  certain 
types  of  habits,  however,  when  incidental  learning  plays  a  large 
part,  much  skill  may  be  acquired  without  focalization  of  atten- 
tion in  the  process.  Much  of  the  learning  of  little  children  is 
of  this  type.  Their  habits  of  language,  ways  of  doing  things, 
mannerisms,  and  emotional  attitudes  often  come  as  a  result  of 
suggestion  and  imitation  rather  than  as  a  result  of  definite  for- 
mation of  the  new  habit. 

The  second  great  law  of  habit  formation  is  the  law  of  effect. 
This  law  says  that  any  connection  whose  activity  is  accompanied 
by  or  followed  by  satisfaction  tends  thereby  to  be  strengthened. 
If  the  accompanying  emotional  tone  is  annoyance,  the  connection 
is  weakened.  This  law  that  satisfaction  stamps  connections  in, 
and  annoyance  inhibits  connections,  is  one  of  the  greatest  if  not 
the  greatest  law  of  human  life.  Whatever  gives  satisfaction, 
that  mankind  continues  to  do.  He  learns  only  that  which  re- 
sults in  some  kind  of  satisfaction.  Because  of  the  working  of 
this  law  animals  learn  to  do  their  tricks,  the  baby  learns  to  talk, 
the  child  learns  to  tell  the  truth,  the  adult  learns  to  work  with 
the  fourth  dimension.  Repetition  by  itself  is  a  wasteful  method 
of  habit  formation.  The  law  of  effect  must  work  as  well  as  the 
law  of  exercise,  if  the  results  are  to  be  satisfactory.  As  has 
already  been  pointed  out,  it  is  not  the  practice  alone  that  makes 
perfect,  but  the  stressing  of  improvements,  and  that  fixing  is  made 
possible  only  by  satisfaction.  Pleasure,  in  the  broad  sense, 
must  be  the  accompaniment  or  the  result  of  any  connection 


62  HOW  TO  TEACH 

that  is  to  become  habitual.  This  satisfaction  may  be  of  many 
different  sorts,  physical,  emotional,  or  intellectual.  It  may  be 
occasioned  by  a  reward  or  recognition  from  without  or  by  appre- 
ciation arising  from  self-criticism.  In  some  form  or  other  it 
must  be  present. 

Two  further  suggestions  in  habit  formation  which  grow  out  of 
the  above  laws  should  be  borne  in  mind.  The  first  is  the  effect' 
of  primacy.  In  everyday  language,  ''first  impressions  last 
longest."  The  character  of  the  first  responses  made  in  any  given 
situation  have  great  influence  on  all  succeeding  responses.  They 
make  the  strongest  impression,  they  are  the  hardest  to  eradicate. 
From  a  physiological  point  of  view  the  explanation  is  evident. 
A  connection  untraversed  or  used  but  a  few  times  is  much  more 
plastic  than  later  when  it  has  been  used  often.  Hence  the  first 
time  the  connection  is  used  gives  a  greater  set  or  bent  than  any 
equal  subsequent  activity.  This  is  true  both  of  the  nervous 
system  as  a  whole  and  of  any  particular  conduction  unit.  Thus 
impressions  made  in  childhood  count  more  than  those  of  the 
same  strength  made  later.  The  first  few  attempts  in  pronounc- 
ing foreign  words  fixes  the  pronunciation.  The  first  few  weeks 
in  a  subject  or  in  dealing  with  any  person  influences  all  subse- 
quent responses  to  a  marked  degree. 

The  second  suggestion  has  to  do  with  the  effect  of  exceptions. 
James  says,  ''Never  allow  an  exception  to  occur"  in  the  course 
of  forming  a  habit.  Not  only  will  the  occurrence  of  one  exception 
make  more  likely  its  recurrence,  but  if  the  exception  does  not 
recur,  at  least  the  response  is  less  sure  and  less  accurate  than  it 
otherwise  would  be.  It  tends  to  destroy  self-confidence  or  con- 
fidence in  the  one  who  allowed  the  exception.  Sometimes  even 
one  exception  leads  to  disastrous  consequences  and  undoes  the 
work  of  weeks  and  months.  This  is  especially  true  in  breaking 
a  bad  habit  or  in  forming  a  new  one  which  has  some  instinctive 
response  working  against  it. 


THE  FORMATION  OF  HABITS  63 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  work  done  in  experimental 
laboratories  and  elsewhere  in  the  study  of  the  formation  of  par- 
ticular habits.  The  process  of  habit  formation  has  been  shown 
by  learning  curves.  When  these  learning  curves  are  compared,  it 
becomes  clear  that  they  have  certain  characteristics  in  common. 
This  is  true  whether  the  learning  be  directed  to  such  habits  as 
the  acquisition  of  vocabularies  in  a  foreign  language  or  to  skill 
in  the  use  of  a  typewriter.  Several  of  the  most  important  char- 
acteristics follow. 

In  the  first  place  it  is  true  of  all  learning  that  there  is  rapid  im- 
provement at  first.  During  the  beginning  of  the  formation  of  a 
habit  more  rapid  advance  is  made  than  at  any  other  time.  There 
are  two  principal  reasons  for  this  fact.  The  adjustments  required 
at  the  beginning  are  comparatively  simple  and  easily  made  and 
the  particular  learning  is  new  and  therefore  is  undertaken  with 
zest  and  interest.  After  a  time  the  work  becomes  more  difficult, 
the  novelty  wears  off,  therefore  the  progress  becomes  less  marked 
and  the  curve  shows  fluctuations. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  learning  curve  is  the  presence 
of  the  so-called  ''plateaus."  Plateaus  show  in  the  curve  as  flat, 
level  stretches  during  which  there  has  apparently  been  no  prog- 
ress. The  meaning  of  these  level  stretches,  and  whether  or  not 
they  can  be  entirely  done  away  with  in  any  curve,  is  a  matter 
of  dispute.  These  pauses  may  be  necessary  for  some  of  the 
habits  to  reach  a  certain  degree  of  perfection  before  further  prog- 
ress can  be  made.  However  this  may  be,  there  are  several  minor 
causes  which  tend  to  increase  the  number  of  plateaus  and  to 
lengthen  the  time  spent  in  any  one.  In  the  first  place  an  in- 
secure or  an  inaccurate  foundation  must  result  in  an  increase 
of  plateaus.  If  at  the  beginning,  during  the  initial  spurt,  for 
instance,  the  learner  is  allowed  to  go  so  fast  that  what  he  learns 
is  not  thoroughly  learned,  or  if  he  is  pushed  at  a  pace  that  for  him 
makes  thoroughness  impossible,  plateaus  must  soon  occur  in  his 


64  HOW  TO  TEACH 

learning  curve.  In  the  second  place  a  fruitful  cause  of  plateaus 
is  loss  of  interest,  —  monotony.  If  the  learner  is  not  interested, 
he  will  not  put  forth  the  energy  necessary  for  continued  improve- 
ment, and  a  time  of  no  progress  is  the  result.  The  attitude  of  the 
learner  toward  the  work  is  extremely  important,  not  only  in  the 
,  matter  of  interest,  but  in  the  further  attitude  of  self-confidence. 
Discouragement  usually  results  in  hindering  progress,  whereas 
confidence  tends  to  increase  it.  The  psychological  explanation 
of  this  is  very  evident.  Both  lack  of  interest  in  the  learning  and 
the  presence  of  discouragement  are  likely  to  result  in  divided 
attention  and  that,  as  has  already  been  shown,  results  in  unsatis- 
factory work.  A  third  cause  for  plateaus  is  physiological.  Not 
only  must  the  learner  be  in  the  right  attitude  towards  the  work, 
but  he  must  feel  physically  ''fit."  There  seem  to  be  certain 
physiological  rhythms  that  may  disturb  the  learning  process 
whose  cause  cannot  be  directly  determined,  but  generally  the 
feeling  of  unfitness  can  be  traced  to  a  simple  cause,  —  such  as 
physical  illness,  loss  of  sleep,  exercise,  or  food,  or  undue  emotional 
strain. 

The  older  psychology  has  left  an  impression  that  improvement 
in  any  function  is  limited  both  as  to  amount  and  as  to  the  period 
during  which  it  must  be  attained.  The  physiological  limit  of 
improvement  has  been  thought  of  as  one  which  was  rather 
easily  reached.  The  loss  of  plasticity  of  the  nervous  system 
has  been  supposed  to  be  rather  rapid,  so  that  marked  improve- 
ment in  a  habit  after  one  has  passed  well  into  the  twenties  was 
considered  improbable.  Recent  experiments,  however,  seem  to 
show  that  no  such  condition  of  affairs  exists.  There  is  very 
great  probability  that  any  function  whatsoever  is  improvable 
with  practice,  and  in  most  cases  to  a  very  marked  degree.  To 
find  a  function  which  has  reached  the  physiological  limit  has  been 
very  rare,  even  in  experimental  research,  and  even  with  extended 
practice  series  it  has  been  unusual  to  reach  a  stage  of  zero  im- 


THE  FORMATION  OF  HABITS  65 

provement  even  with  adults.  Thorndike  says,  "Let  the  reader 
consider  that  if  he  should  now  spend  seven  hours,  well  distributed, 
in  mental  multipjication  with  three  place  numbers,  he  would 
thereby  much  more  than  double  his  speed  and  also  reduce  his 
errors ;  or  that,  by  forty  hours  of  practice,  he  could  come  to 
typewrite  (supposing  him  to  now  have  had  zero  practice)  ap-. 
proximately  as  fast  as  he  can  write  by  hand ;  or  that,  starting 
from  zero  knowledge,  he  could  learn  to  copy  EngHsh  into  German 
script  at  a  rate  of  fifty  letters  per  minute,  in  three  hours  or  a 
little  more."  ^  It  is  probably  true  that  the  majority  of  adults 
are  much  below  their  limit  of  efficiency  in  most  of  the  habits  re- 
quired by  their  profession,  and  that  in  school  habits  the  same 
thing  is  true  of  children.  Spurious  levels  of  accomplishment 
have  been  held  up  as  worthy  goals,  and  efficiency  accepted  as 
ultimate  which  was  only  two  thirds,  and  often  less  than  that, 
of  what  was  possible.  Of  course  it  may  not  be  worth  the  time 
and  energy  necessary  to  obtain  improvement  in  certain  lines,  — 
that  must  be  determined  by  the  particular  case,  —  but  the  point 
is,  that  improvement  is  possible  with  both  children  and  adults 
in  almost  every  habit  they  possess  with  comparatively  little 
practice.  Neither  the  physiological  limit  of  a  function  nor  the 
age  limit  of  the  individual  is  reached  as  easily  or  as  soon  as  has 
been  believed. 

There  are  certain  aids  to  improvement  which  must  be  used  in 
order  that  the  best  results  may  be  obtained.  Some  of  theni 
have  already  been  discussed  and  others  will  be  discussed  at  a 
later  time,  so  they  need  only  be  listed  here,  the  right  physiologi- 
cal conditions,  the  proper  distribution  of  the  practice  periods, 
interest  in  the  work,  interest  in  improvement,  problem  attitude, 
attention,  and  absence  of  both  excitement  and  worry. 

Habits  have  been  treated  in  psychology  as  wholes,  just  as  if 
each  habit  was  a  unit.     This  has  been  true,  whether  the  habits 
^  Educational  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  pp.  194-5. 
f 


66  HOW  TO  TEACH 

being  discussed  were  moral  habits,  such  as  sharing  toys  with  a 
younger  brother ;  intellectual  habits,  such  as  reading  and  under- 
standing the  meaning  of  the  word  "and  "  ;  or  motor  habits,  such 
as  sitting  straight.  The  slightest  consideration  of  these  habits 
makes  obvious  that  they  differ  tremendously  in  complexity. 
The  moral  habit  quoted  involves  both  intellectual  and  motor 
habits  —  and  not  one,  but  several.  From  a  physiological  point 
of  view,  this  difference  in  the  complexity  of  habits  is  made 
clear  by  an  examination  of  the  number  of  neural  bonds  used  in 
getting  the  habit  response  to  a  given  situation.  In  some  cases 
they  are  comparatively  few  —  in  others  the  number  necessary  is 
astonishing.  In  no  case  of  habit  will  the  bonds  used  involve  but 
a  single  connection. 

Just  what  bonds  are  needed  in  order  that  a  child  may  learn  to 
add,  or  to  spell,  to  appreciate  music,  or  to  be  industrious,  is  a  ques- 
tion that  only  experiment  and  investigation  can  answer.  At 
present  but  little  is  known  as  to  just  what  happens,  just  what 
connections  are  formed,  when  from  the  original  tendency  towards 
vocalization  the  child  just  learns  to  say  the  word  "milk,"  later 
reads  it,  and  still  later  writes  it.  One  thing  is  certain,  the  process 
is  not  a  unitary  one,  nor  is  it  a  simple  one.  Just  so  long  as  habit 
is  discussed  in  general  terms,  without  any  recognition  of  the  com- 
plexity of  the  process  or  to  the  specific  bonds  involved,  just  so 
long  will  the  process  of  habit  formation  be  wasteful  and  inefficient. 

As  a  sample  of  the  kind  of  work  being  done  in  connection  with 
special  habits,  investigation  seems  to  give  evidence  that  in  the 
habit  of  simple  column  addition  eight  or  nine  distinct  functions 
are  involved,  each  of  which  involves  the  use  of  several  bonds. 
Besides  these  positive  connections,  a  child  in  learning  must  in- 
hibit other  connections  which  are  incorrect,  and  these  must  often 
outnumber  the  correct  ones.  And  yet  column  addition  has 
always  been  treated  as  a  simple  habit  —  with  perhaps  one  ele- 
ment of  complexity,  when  carrying  was  involved.     It  is  evident 


THE  FORMATION  OF  HABITS  67 

that,  if  the  habit  concerned  does  involve  eight  or  nine  different 
functions,  a  child  might  go  astray  in  any  one.  His  diffi- 
culty in  forming  the  habit  might  be  in  connection  with  one  or 
several  of  the  processes  involved.  Knowledge  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  of  these  different  steps  in  the  habit,  and  apprecia- 
tion by  him  of  the  possibilities  of  making  errors,  are  the  pre- 
requisites of  efficient  teaching  of  habits. 

In  each  one  of  the  subjects  there  is  much  need  of  definite  ex- 
perimental work,  in  order  that  the  specific  bonds  necessary  in 
forming  the  habits  peculiar  to  the  subject  be  determined.  The 
psychology  of  arithmetic,  or  of  physics,  or  of  spelling  should 
involve  such  information.  Meanwhile  every  teacher  can  do 
much  if  she  will  carefully  stop  and  think  just  what  she  is  requiring 
in  the  given  response.  An  analysis  of  the  particular*  situation 
and  response  will  make  clear  at  least  some  of  the  largest  elements 
involved,  some  of  the  most  important  connections  to  be  made. 
It  is  the  specific  nature  of  the  connections  to  be  made  and  the 
number  of  those  connections  that  need  emphasis  in  the  teaching 
of  habits.  Not  only  must  the  specific  nature  of  the  bonds  in- 
volved in  individual  habits  be  stressed,  but  also  the  specific 
nature  of  the  entire  complex  which  is  called  the  habit.  There 
is  no  such  thing  as  a  general  curve  of  learning  that  will  apply 
equally  well,  no  matter  what  the  habit.  The  kind  of  curve,  the 
rate  of  improvement,  the  possibilities  of  plateaus,  the  permanence 
of  the  improvement,  all  these  facts  and  others  vary  with  the 
particular  habit. 

In  habit  formation,  as  is  the  case  in  other  types  of  activity, 
we  get  the  most  satisfactory  results  only  when  we  secure  a  max- 
imum of  interest  in  the  work  to  be  done.  The  teacher  who  thinks 
that  she  can  get  satisfactory  results  merely  by  compelling  chil- 
dren to  repeat  over  and  over  again  the  particular  form  to  be 
mastered  is  doomed  to  disappointment.  Indeed,  it  is  not 
infrequently  true  that  the  dislike  which  children  get  for  the 


68  HOW  TO  TEACH 

dreary  exercises  which  have  little  or  no  meaning  for  them  inter- 
feres to  such  a  degree  with  the  formation  of  the  habit  we  hope 
to  secure  as  to  develop  a  maximum  of  inaccuracies  rather  than 
any  considerable  improvement.  The  teacher  who  makes  a 
game  out  of  her  word  drill  in  beginning  reading  may  confidently 
expect  to  have  children  recognize  more  words  the  next  day  than 
one  who  has  used  the  same  amount  of  time,  without  introducing 
the  motive  which  has  made  children  enjoy  their  work.  Children 
who  compare  their  handwriting  with  a  scale,  which  enables  them 
to  tell  what  degree  of  improvement  they  have  made  over  a  given 
period,  are  much  more  apt  to  improve  than  are  children  who  are 
merely  asked  to  fill  up  sheets  of  paper  with  practice  writing.  A 
vocabulary  in  a  modern  language  will  be  built  up  more  certainly 
if  students  seek  to  make  a  record  in  the  mastery  of  some  hundreds 
or  thousands  of  words  during  a  given  period,  rather  than  merely 
to  do  the  work  which  is  assigned  from  day  to  day.  A  group  of 
boys  in  a  continuation  school  have  little  difficulty  in  mastering 
the  habits  which  are  required  in  order  to  handle  the  formal 
processes  in  arithmetic,  or  to  apply  the  formula  of  algebra  or 
trigonometry,  if  the  application  of  these  habitual  responses  to 
their  everyday  work  has  been  made  clear.  Wherever  we  seek 
to  secure  an  habitual  response  we  should  attempt  to  have  children 
understand  the  use  to  which  the  given  response  is  to  be  put,  or,  if 
this  is  not  possible,  to  introduce  some  extraneous  motive  which 
will  give  satisfaction. 

We  cannot  be  too  careful  in  the  habits  which  we  seek  to  have 
children  form  to  see  to  it  that  the  first  response  is  correct.  It 
is  well  on  many  occasions,  if  we  have  any  doubt  as  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  children,  to  anticipate  the  response  which  they  should 
give,  and  to  make  them  acquainted  with  it,  rather  than  to  allow 
them  to  engage  in  random  guessing.  The  boy  who  in  writing 
his  composition  wishes  to  use  a  word  which  he  does  not  know 
how  to  spell,  should  feel  entirely  free  to  ask  the  teacher  for  the 


THE  FORMATION  OF  HABITS  69 

correct  spelling,  unless  there  is  a  dictionary  at  hand  which  he 
knows  how  to  use.  It  is  very  much  better  for  a  boy  to  ask  for 
a  particular  form  in  a  foreign  language,  or  to  refer  to  his  grammar, 
than  it  is  for  him  to  use  in  his  oral  or  written  composition  a  form 
concerning  which  he  is  not  certain.  A  mistake  made  in  a  formula 
in  algebra,  or  in  physics,  may  persist,  even  after  many  repeti- 
tions might  seem  to  have  rendered  the  correct  form  entirely 
automatic. 

In  matters  of  habit  it  does  not  pay  to  take  it  for  granted  that 
all  have  mastered  the  particular  forms  which  have  supposedly 
been  taught,  and  it  never  pays  to  attempt  to  present  too  much 
at  any  one  time.  More  satisfactory  work  in  habit  formation 
would  commonly  be  done  were  we  to  teach  fewer  words  in  any 
one  spelling  lesson,  or  attempt  to  fix  fewer  combinations  in  any 
particular  drill  lesson  in  arithmetic,  or  assign  a  part  of  a  de- 
clension or  conjugation  in  a  foreign  language,  or  to  be  absolutely 
certain  that  one  or  two  formulas  were  fixed  in  algebra  or  in  chem- 
istry, rather  than  in  attempting  to  master  several  on  the  same 
day.  Teachers  ought  constantly  to  ask  themselves  whether 
every  member  of  the  class  is  absolutely  sure  and  absolutely  ac- 
curate in  his  response  before  attempting  new  work.  It  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  particular  difficulties  be  analyzed, 
and  that  attention  be  fixed  upon  that  which  is  new,  or  that  which 
presents  some  unusual  difficulty. 

As  has  already  been  implied,  it  is  important  not  simply  to  start 
with  as  strong  a  motive  as  possible,  but  it  is  also  necessary  to  keep 
attention  concentrated  during  the  exercises  which  are  supposed 
to  result  in  habit  formation.  However  strong  the  motive  for 
the  particular  work  may  have  been  at  the  beginning,  it  is  likely 
after  a  few  minutes  to  lack  power,  if  the  particular  exercise  is 
continued  in  exactly  the  same. form.  Much  is  to  be  gained  by 
varying  the  procedure.  Oral  work  alternated  with  written  work, 
concert  work  alternated  with  individual  testing,  the  setting  of 


70  HOW  TO  TEACH 

one  group  over  against  another,  the  attempt  to  see  how  much 
can  be  done  in  a  given  period  of  minutes,  —  indeed,  any  device 
which  will  keep  attention  fixed  is  to  be  most  eagerly  sought  for. 
In  all  practice  it  is  important  that  the  pupil  strive  to  do  his  very 
best.  If  the  ideal  of  accuracy  or  of  perfection  in  form  is  once  lost 
sight  of,  the  responses  given  may  result  in  an  actual  loss  rather 
than  in  gain  in  fixing  the  habit.  When  a  teacher  is  no  longer 
able  to  secure  attention  to  the  work  in  hand,  it  is  better  to  stop 
rather  than  to  continue  in  order  to  provide  for  a  given  number 
of  repetitions.  Drill  periods  of  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes  two 
or  three  times  a  day  may  almost  always  be  found  to  produce 
better  results  than  the  same  amount  of  time  used  consecutively. 
Systematic  reviews  are  most  essential  in  the  process  of  habit 
formation.  The  complaint  of  a  fifth-grade  teacher  that  the  work 
in  long  division  was  not  properly  taught  in  the  fourth  grade  may 
be  due  in  considerable  measure  to  the  fact  that  she  has  neglected 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  grade's  work  to  spend  a  week  or  two 
in  careful  or  systematic  review  of  the  work  covered  in  the  pre- 
vious year.  The  complaint  of  high  school  teachers  that  children 
are  not  properly  taught  in  the  elementary  school  would  often  be 
obviated  if  in  each  of  the  fields  in  question  some  systematic  re- 
view were  given  from  time  to  time,  especially  at  the  beginning 
of  the  work  undertaken,  in  any  particular  subject  which  involves 
work  previously  done  in  the  elementary  school.  During  any 
year's  work  that  teacher  will  be  most  successful  who  reviews 
each  day  the  work  of  the  day  before,  who  reviews  each  third  or 
fourth  day  the  particularly  difficult  parts  of  the  work  done 
during  the  previous  periods,  who  reviews  each  week  and  each 
month,  and  even  each  two  or  three  months,  the  work  which  has 
been  covered  up  to  that  time.  When  teachers  understand  that 
the  intervals  between  repetition^  which  seem  to  have  fijced  a 
habit  may  only  be  gradually  lengthened,  then  will  the  formation 
of  habits  upon  the  part  of  boys  and  girls  become  more  certain, 


THE  FORMATION  OF  HABITS  71 

and  the  difficulties  arising  from  lapses  and  inaccuracies  become 
less  frequent. 

As  has  been  suggested  in  previous  discussions,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary in  habit  formation  to  vary  the  requirements  among  the 
individuals  who  compose  a  group.  The  motive  which  we  seek 
to  utiHze  may  make  a  greater  appeal  to  one  child  than  to  another. 
Physiological  differences  may  account  for  the  fact  that  a  small 
number  of  repetitions  will  serve  to  fix  the  response  for  one  in- 
dividual as  over  against  a  very  much  larger  number  of  repetitions 
required  for  another.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  all 
children  work  up  to  the  maximum  of  their  capacity.  It  is  very 
much  better,  for  example,  to  excuse  a  boy  entirely  from  a  given 
drill  exercise  than  to  have  him  dawdle  or  loaf  during  the  period. 
In  some  fields  a  degree  of  efficiency  may  be  reached  which  will 
permit  the  most  efficient  children  to  be  relieved  entirely  from 
certain  exercises  in  order  that  they  may  spend  their  time  on  other 
work.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  are  less  capable  may  need 
to  have  special  drill  exercises  arranged  which  will  help  them  to 
make  up  their  deficiency.  The  teacher  who  is  acquainted  with 
the  psychology  of  habit  formation  should  secure  from  the  pupils 
in  her  class  a  degree  of  efficiency  which  is  not  commonly  found  in 
our  schools. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  we  have  habits  of  thought? 

2.  What  habits  which  may  interfere  with  or  aid  in  your  school  work 
are  formed  before  children  enter  school  ? 

3.  Why  is  it  hard  to  break  a  habit  of  speech? 

4.  Distinguish  among  actions  to  which  we  attribute  a  moral  significance 
those  which  are  based  upon  habit  and  those  which  are  reasoned. 

5.  Professor  James  said,  "Habits  are  the  stuff  of  which  behavior  con- 
sists." Indicate  the  extent  to  which  this  is  true  for  the  children  in  your 
classes. 

6.  In  how  far  is  it  advantageous  to  become  a  creature  of  habit? 

7.  Which  of  our  actions  should  be  the  result  of  reason? 


72  HOW  TO  TEACH 

8.  Should  school  children  reason  their  responses  in  case  of  a  fire  alarm, 
in  passing  pencils,  in  formal  work  in  arithmetic?  Name  responses  which 
should  be  the  result  of  reason ;   others  which  should  be  habitual. 

9.  Why  do  we  sometimes  become  less  efficient  when  we  fix  our  atten- 
tion upon  an  action  that  is  ordinarily  habitual  ? 

10.  Why  do  children  sometimes  write  more  poorly,  or  make  more  mis- 
takes in  addition,  or  in  their  conjugations  or  declensions,  at  the  end  of  the 
period  than  they  do  at  the  beginning  ? 

11.  How  would  you  hope  to  correct  habits  of  speech  learned  at  home? 
What  particular  difficulty  is  involved? 

12.  When  are  repetitions  most  helpful  in  habit  formation  ? 

13.  When  may  repetitions  actually  break  down  or  eliminate  habitual 
responses  ? 

14.  How  may  the  keeping  of  a  record  of  one's  improvement  add  in  the 
formation  of  a  habit  ? 

15.  What  motives  have  you  found  most  usable  in  keeping  attention 
concentrated  during  the  exercises  in  habit  formation  which  you  conduct  ? 

16.  The  approval  or  disapproval  of  a  group  of  boys  and  girls  often  brings 
about  a  very  rapid  change  in  physical,  moral,  or  mental  habits  on  the  part 
of  individual  children.     Why  ? 

17.  Why  should  drill  work  be  discontinued  when  children  grow  tired  and 
cease  to  concentrate  their  attention? 

18.  Why  should  reviews  be  undertaken  at  the  beginning  of  a  year's 
work?    How  can  reviews  be  organized  to  best  advantage  during  the  year? 

19.  What  provision  do  you  make  in  your  work  to  guard  against  lapses? 


V 

HOW  TO   MEMORIZE 

There  is  no  sharp  distinction  between  habit  and  memory. 
Both  are  governed  by  the  general  laws  of  association.  They 
shade  off  into  each  other,  and  what  one  might  call  habit  another 
with  equal  reason  might  call  memory.  Their  likenesses  are 
greater  than  their  differences.  However,  there  is  some  reason 
for  treating  the  topic  of  association  under  these  two  heads.  The 
term  memory  has  been  used  by  different  writers  to  mean  at  least 
four  different  types  of  association.  It  has  been  used  to  refer  to 
the  presence  of  mental  images ;  to  refer  to  the  consciousness  of 
a  feeling  or  event  as  belonging  to  one's  own  past  experience; 
to  refer  to  the  presence  of  connections  between  situation  and 
motor  response ;  and  to  refer  to  the  ability  to  recall  the  appro- 
priate response  to  a  particular  situation.  The  last  meaning  of 
the  term  is  the  one  which  will  be  used  here.  The  mere  flow  of 
imagery  is  not  memory,  and  it  matters  little  whether  the  ap- 
propriate response  be  accompanied  by  the  time  element  and  the 
personal  element  or  not.  In  fact,  most  of  the  remembering 
which  is  done  in  daily  life  lacks  these  two  elements. 

Memory  then  is  the  recall  of  the  appropriate  response  in  a 
given  situation.  It  differs  from  habit  in  that  the  responses  re- 
ferred to  are  more  often  mental  rather  than  motor;  in  that  it 
is  less  automatic,  more  purposeful.  The  fact  that  the  elements 
involved  are  so  largely  mental  makes  it  true  that  the  given  fact 
is  usually  found  to  have  several  connections  and  the  given 
situation  to  be  connected  with  many  facts.     Which  particular 

73 


74  HOW  TO  TEACH 

one  will  be  "appropriate"  will  depend  on  all  sorts  of  subtle 
factors,  hence  the  need  of  the  control  of  the  connection  series 
by  a  purpose  and  the  diminishing  of  the  element  of  automaticity. 
As  was  said  before,  there  is  no  hard  and  fast  line  of  division  be- 
tween habit  and  memory.  The  recall  of  the  "  V64  "  or  of  how  to 
spell  "home"  or  of  the  French  for  "table"  might  be  called  either 
or  both.  All  that  was  said  in  the  discussion  of  habit  appHes  to 
memory. 

This  ability  to  recall  appropriate  facts  in  given  situations  is 
dependent  primarily  on  three  factors :  power  of  retention, 
number  of  associations,  organization  of  associations.  The 
first  factor,  power  of  retention,  is  the  most  fundamental  and  to 
some  extent  limits  the  usefulness  of  the  other  two.  It  is  deter- 
mined by  the  character  of  the  neurones  and  varies  with  different 
brains.  Neurones  which  are  easily  impressed  and  retain  their 
impression  simply  because  they  are  so  made  are  the  gift  of 
nature  and  the  corner  stone  of  a  good  memory.  This  retention 
power  is  but  little,  if  at  all,  affected  by  practice.  It  is  a  primary 
quality  of  the  nervous  system,  present  or  absent  to  the  degree 
determined  by  each  individual's  original  nature.  Hence  mem- 
ory as  a  whole  cannot  be  improved,  although  the  absence  of  cer- 
tain conditions  may  mean  that  it  is  not  being  used  up  to  its 
maximum  capacity.  Change  in  these  conditions,  then,  will 
enable  a  person  to  make  use  of  all  the  native  retentiveness  his 
nervous  system  has.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  con- 
ditions is  good  health.  To  the  extent  that  good  blood,  sleep, 
exercise,  etc.,  put  the  nervous  system  in  better  tone,  to  that 
extent  the  retentive  power  present  is  put  in  better  working 
order.  Every  one  knows  how  lack  of  sleep  and  illness  is  often 
accompanied  by  loss  in  memory.  Repetition,  attention,  interest, 
vividness  of  impression,  all  appeal  primarily  to  this  so-called 
"brute  memory,"  or  retentive  power.  Pleasurable  results 
seem  not  to  be  qiute  so  important,  and  repetition  to  be  more  so 


HOW  TO  MEMORIZE  75 

when  the  connections  are  between  mental  states  instead  of  be- 
tween mental  states  and  motor  responses.  An  emphasis  on,  or 
an  improvement  in,  the  use  of  any  one  of  these  factors  may  call 
into  play  to  a  greater  extent  than  before  the  native  retentive 
power  of  a  given  child. 

The  power  to  recall  a  fact  or  an  event  depends  not  only  upon 
this  quality  of  retentiveness,  but  also  upon  the  number  of  other 
facts  or  events  connected  with  it.  Each  one  of  these  connec- 
tions serves  as  an  avenue  of  approach,  a  clew  by  means  of  which 
the  recall  may  operate.  Any  single  blockade  therefore  may 
not  hinder  the  recall,  provided  there  are  many  associates.  This 
is  true,  no  matter  how  strong  the  retentive  power  may  be.  It 
is  doubly  important  if  the  retentive  power  is  weak.  Suppose  a 
given  fact  to  be  held  rather  weakly  because  of  comparatively 
poor  retentive  power,  then  the  operation  of  one  chain  of  asso- 
ciates may  not  be  energetic  enough  to  recall  it.  But  if  this 
same  fact  may  be  approached  from  several  different  angles  by 
means  of  several  chains  of  associations,  the  combined  power  of 
the  activity  in  the  several  neurone  chains  will  likely  be  enough 
to  lift  it  above  the  threshold  of  recall.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  likeHhood  that  a  needed  fact  will  be  recalled  is  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  its  associations. 

The  third  factor  upon  which  goodness  in  memory  depends  is 
the  organization  of  associates.  Number  of  connections  is  an 
aid  to  memory  —  but  systematization  among  these  connections 
is  an  added  help.  Logical  arrangement  of  facts  in  memory, 
classification  according  to  various  principles,  orderly  grouping 
of  things  that  belong  together,  make  the  operation  of  memory 
more  efficient  and  economical.  The  difference  between  mere 
number  of  associations  and  orderly  arrangement  of  those  as- 
sociations may  be  illustrated  by  the  difference  in  efficiency 
between  the  housekeeper  who  starts  more  or  less  blindly  to  look 
all  over  the  house  for  a  lost  article,  and  the  one  who  at  least 


76  HOW  TO  TEACH 

knows  that  it  must  be  in  a  certain  room  and  probably  in  a  certain 
bureau  drawer.  Although  memory  as  a  whole  cannot  be  im- 
proved because  of  the  limiting  power  of  native  retentiveness, 
memory  for  any  fact  or  in  any  definite  field  may  be  improved 
by  emphasizing  these  two  factors :  number  of  associations 
and  organization  among  associations. 

Although  all  three  factors  are  operative  in  securing  the  best 
type  of  memory,  still  the  efficiency  of  a  given  memory  may  be 
due  more  to  the  unusual  power  of  one  of  them  than  to  the  com- 
bined effect  of  the  three.  It  is  this  difference  in  the  functioning 
of  these  three  factors  which  is  primarily  responsible  for  certain 
types  of  memory  which  will  be  discussed  later.  It  must  also 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  power  of  these  factors  to  operate  in 
determining  recall  varies  somewhat  with  age.  Little  children 
and  old  people  are  more  dependent  upon  mere  retentiveness 
than  upon  either  of  the  others,  the  former  because  of  lack  of 
experience  and  lack  of  habits  of  thought,  the  latter  because  of 
the  loss  of  both  of  these  factors.  The  adult  depends  more  on 
the  organization  of  his  material,  while  in  the  years  between  the 
number  of  the  clews  is  probably  the  controlling  factor.  Here 
again  there  is  no  sharp  line  of  division ;  all  three  are  needed.  So 
in  the  primary  grades  we  begin  to  require  children  to  organize, 
and  as  adults  we  do  all  we  can  to  make  the  power  of  retention 
operate  at  its  maximum. 

Many  methods  of  memorizing  have  been  used  by  both  chil- 
dren and  adults.  Recently  experimental  psychology  has  been 
testing  some  of  them.  So  far  as  the  learner  is  concerned,  he 
may  use  repetition,  or  concentration,  or  recall  as  a  primary 
method.  Repetition  means  simply  the  going  over  and  over 
again  the  material  to  be  learned  —  the  element  depended  upon 
being  the  number  of  times  the  connection  is  made.  Concentra- 
tion means  going  over  the  material  with  attention.  Not  the 
number  of  connections  is  important,  but  the  intensity  of  those 


HOW  TO  MEMORIZE  77 

connections.  In  recall  the  emphasis  is  laid  upon  reinstating 
the  desired  connections  from  within.  In  using  this  method,  for 
instance,  the  learner  goes  over  the  material  as  many  times  as 
he  sees  necessary,  then  closes  the  book  and  recalls  from  memory 
what  he  can  of  it. 

The  last  of  the  three  methods  is  by  far  the  best,  whether  the 
memory  desired  be  rote  or  logical,  for  several  reasons.  In  the 
first  place  it  involves  both  the  other  methods  or  goes  beyond 
them.  Second,  it  is  economical,  for  the  learner  knows  when  he 
knows  the  lesson.  Third,  it  is  sure,  for  it  establishes  connections 
as  they  will  be  used  —  in  other  words,  the  learning  provides  for 
recall,  which  is  the  thing  desired,  whereas  the  other  two  methods 
establish  only  connections  of  impression.  Fourth,  it  tends  to 
establish  habits  that  are  of  themselves  worth  while,  such  as 
assuming  responsibility  for  getting  results,  testing  one's  own 
power  and  others.  Fifth,  it  encourages  the  use  of  the  two 
factors  upon  which  memory  depends,  which  are  most  capable 
of  development,  i.e.,  nurriber  and  organization  of  associations. 

In  connection  with  the  use  of  the  material  two  methods  have 
been  employed  — ■  the  part  method  and  the  whole  method.  The 
learner  may  break  the  material  up  into  sections,  and  study  just 
one,  then  the  next,  and  so  on,  or  he  may  take  all  the  material  and 
go  through  with  it  from  the. beginning  to  the  end  and  then  back 
again.  Experimental  results  show  the  whole  method  to  be  the 
better  of  the  two.  However,  in  actual  practice,  especially  with 
school  children,  probably  a  combination  of  the  two  is  still  better, 
because  of  certain  difficulties  arising  from  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  whole  method.  The  advantages  of  the  whole  method  are 
that  it  forms  the  right  connections  and  emphasizes  the  com- 
plete thought  and  therefore  saves  time  and  gives  the  right  per- 
spective. Its  difficulties  are  that  the  material  is  not  all  of 
equal  difficulty  and  therefore  it  is  wasteful  to  put  the  same 
amount  of  time  on  all  parts ;  it  is  discouraging  to  the  learner, 


78  HOW  TO  TEACH 

as  no  part  may  be  raised  above  the  threshold  of  recall  at  the 
first  study  period  (particularly  true  if  it  is  rote  memory) ;  it 
is  difficult  to  use  recall,  if  the  whole  method  is  rigidly  adhered 
to.  A  combination  of  the  two  is  therefore  wise.  The  learner 
should  be  encouraged  to  go  over  the  material  from  beginning 
to  end,  until  the  difficult  parts  become  apparent,  then  to  con- 
centrate on  these  parts  for  a  time  and  again  go  over  from  the 
beginning  — •  using  recall  whenever  possible. 

A  consideration  of  the  time  element  involved  in  memorizing 
has  given  use  to  two  other  methods,  the  so-called  concentrated 
and  distributive.  Given  a  certain  amount  of  time  to  spend  on 
a  certain  subject,  the  learner  may  distribute  it  in  almost  an 
infinite  number  of  ways,  varying  not  only  the  length  of  the 
period  of  practice,  but  also  the  length  of  time  elapsing  between 
periods.  The  experimental  work  done  in  connection  with  these 
methods  has  not  resulted  in  agreement.  No  doubt  there  is  an 
optimum  length  of  period  for  practice  and  an  optimum  inter- 
val, but  too  many  factors  enter  in  to  make  any  one  state- 
ment. "The  experimental  results  justify  in  a  rough  way 
the  avoidance  of  very  long  practice  periods  and  of  very  short 
intervals.  They  seem  to  show,  on  the  other  hand,  that  much 
longer  practice  periods  than  are  customary  in  the  common 
schools  are  probably  entirely  allowable,  and  that  much  shorter 
intervals  are  allowable  than  those  customary  between  the  just 
learning  and  successive  'reviews 'in  schools."^  This  statement 
leaves  the  terms  very  long  and  very  short  to  be  defined,  but 
at  present  the  experimental  results  are  too  contradictory  to 
permit  of  anything  more  specific.  However,  a  few  suggestions  do 
grow  from  these  results.  The  practice  period  should  be  short 
in  proportion  as  these  factors  are  present:  first,  young  or  im- 
mature minds ;  second,  mechanical  mental  processes  as  opposed 
to  thought  material ;  third,  a  learner  who  ''warms  up"  quickly; 
^  Thorndike,  Psychology  of  Learning,  p.  194. 


HOW  TO  MEMORIZE  79 

the  presence  of  fatigue ;  a  function  near  its  limit.  Thus  the  length 
of  the  optimum  period  must  vary  with  the  age  of  the  learner, 
the  subject  matter,  the  stage  of  proficiency  in  the  subject,  and 
the  particular  learner.  The  same  facts  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  deciding  on  the  optimum  interval.  One  fact  seems 
pretty  well  estabhshed  in  connection  with  the  interval,  and  that 
is  that  a  comparatively  short  period  of  practice  with  a  review 
after  a  night's  rest  counts  more  than  a  much  longer  period  added 
to  the  time  spent  the  evening  before. 

There  are  certain  suggestions  which  if  carried  out  help  the 
learner  in  his  memorizing.  In  the  first  place,  as  the  number  of 
associates  is  one  factor  determining  recall,  the  fact  to  be  re- 
membered should  be  presented  in  many  ways,  i.e.,  appealing  to 
as  many  senses  as  possible.  In  carrying  this  out,  it  has  been 
the  practice  of  many  teachers  to  require  the  material  to  be 
remembered  to  be  acted  out  or  written.  This  is  all  right  in  so 
far  as  the  muscular  reactions  required  are  mechanical  and  take 
little  attention.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  child  has  to  give  much 
attention  to  how  he  is  to  dramatize  it,  or  if  writing  in  itself  is  as 
yet  a  partially  learned  process,  the  attention  must  be  divided 
between  the  fact  to  be  memorized  and  its  expression,  and  hence 
the  desired  result  is  not  accomplished.  Colvin  claims  that 
*' writing  is  not  an  aid  to  learning  until  the  sixth  or  seventh 
grade  in  the  schools."  This  same  fact  that  an  association  only 
partly  known  is  a  hindrance  rather  than  a  help  in  fixing  another 
is  often  violated  both  in  teaching  spelling  and  language.  If 
the  spelling  of  ''two"  is  unknown  or  only  partly  known,  it  is  a 
hindrance  instead  of  a  help  to  teach  it  at  the  same  time  ''too" 
is  being  taught.  Second,  the  learner  should  be  allowed  to  find 
his  own  speed,  as  it  varies  tremendously  with  the  individual. 
Third,  rhythm  is  always  an  aid  when  it  can  be  used,  such  as 
learning  the  number  of  days  in  each  month  in  rhyme.  Fourth, 
after  a  period  of  hard  mental  work  a  few  minutes  (Pillsbury 


8o  HOW  TO  TEACH 

thinks  three  to  six)  should  elapse  before  definitely  taking  up  a 
new  line  of  work.  This  allows  for  the  so-called  ^'setting"  of 
associations,  due  to  the  action  of  the  general  law  of  inertia,  and 
tends  to  diminish  the  possibility  of  interference  from  the  bonds 
called  into  play  by  the  new  work.  Fifth,  mnemonic  devices  of 
simple  type  are  sometimes  an  aid.  Most  of  these  devices  are 
of  questionable  value,  as  they  themselves  require  more  memory 
work  than  the  facts  they  are  supposed  to  be  fixing.  However,  if 
devised  by  the  learner,  or  if  suggested  by  some  one  else  after 
failure  on  the  part  of  the  learner  to  fix  the  material,  they  are 
permissible. 

Memory  has  been  classified  in  various  ways,  according  to  the 
time  element,  as  immediate  and  permanent.  Immediate  mem- 
ory is  the  one  which  holds  for  a  short  time,  whereas  permanent 
memory  holds  for  a  long  time.  People  differ  markedly  in  this 
respect.  Some  can  if  tested. after  the  study  period  reproduce 
the  material  with  a  high  degree  of  accuracy,  but  lose  most  of  it 
in  a  comparatively  short  time.  Others,  if  tested  in  the  same 
way,  reproduce  less  immediately,  but  hold  what  they  have  over 
a  long  period.  Children  as  a  whole  differ  from  adults  in  having 
poorer  immediate  memories,  but  in  holding  what  is  fixed  through 
years.  Of  course  permanent  memory  is  the  more  valuable  of  the 
two  types  for  most  of  life,  but  on  the  other  hand  immediate 
memory  has  its  own  special  value.  Lawyers,  physicians,  politi- 
cians, ministers,  lecturers,  all  need  great  power  of  immediate 
memory  in  their  particular  professions.  They  need  to  be  able 
to  hold  a  large  amount  of  material  for  a  short  time,  but  then  they 
may  forget  a  great  deal  of  it. 

Memory  is  also  classified  according  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
material  as  desultory,  rote,  and  logical  memory.  In  desultory 
memory  the  facts  just  "stick"  because  of  the  great  retentive 
power  of  the  brain,  there  are  few  connections,  the  material  is 
disconnected    and    disjointed.     Rote    memory   depends    on    a 


HOW  TO  MEMORIZE  8i 

special  memory  for  words,  aided  by  serial  connections  and  often 
rhythm.  Logical  is  primarily  a  memory  for  meanings  and 
depends  upon  arrangement  and  system  for  its  power.  Little 
children  as  a  class  have  good  desultory  memories  and  poor  logical 
memories.  Rote  memory  is  probably  at  its  best  in  the  pre- 
adolescent  and  early  adolescent  years.  Logical  memory  is 
characteristic  of  mature,  adult  minds.  However,  some  people 
excel  in  one  rather  than  another  type,  and  each  renders  its  own 
peculiar  service.  A  genius  in  any  line  finds  a  good  desultory 
memory  of  immense  help,  despite  the  fact  that  logical  memory 
is  the  one  he  finds  most  valuable.  Teachers,  politicians,  lin- 
guists, clerks,  waiters,  and  others  need  a  well-developed  desultory 
memory.  Rote  memory  is,  of  course,  necessary  if  an  individual 
is  to  make  a  success  as  an  actor,  a  singer,  or  a  musician. 

According  to  the  rate  of  acquisition  memory  has  been  classified 
into  quick  and  slow.  One  learner  gets  his  material  so  much 
more  quickly  than  another.  Up  to  rather  recent  years  the  quick 
learner  has  been  commiserated,  for  we  believed,  "quickly  come, 
quickly  go."  Experimental  results  have  proved  this  not  to  be 
true,  but  in  fact  the  reverse  is  more  true,  i.^.,'' quickly  come, 
slowly  go."  The  one  who  learns  quickly,  provided  he  really 
learns  it,  retains  it  just  as  long  and  on  the  average  longer  than 
the  one  who  learns  much  more  slowly.  The  danger,  from  a 
practical  point  of  view,  is  that  the  quick  learner,  because  of  his 
ability,  gets  careless  and  learns  the  material  only  well  enough  to 
reproduce  at  the  time,  whereas  the  slow  learner,  because  of  his 
lack  of  ability,  raises  his  efficiency  to  a  higher  level  and  therefore 
retains.  If  the  quick  learner  had  spent  five  minutes  more  on 
the  material,  he  would  have  raised  his  work  to  the  same  level  as 
that  of  the  slow  one  and  yet  have  finished  in  perhaps  half  the 
time. 

All  through  the  discussion  of  kinds  of  memory  the  term 
"memory"  should  have  been  used  in  the  plural,  for  after  all  we 


82  HOW  TO  TEACH 

possess  ''memories"  and  not  a  single  faculty  memory  which 
may  be  quick,  or  desultory,  or  permanent.  The  actual  condi- 
tion of  affairs  is  much  more  complex,  for  although  it  has  been 
the  individual  who  has  been  designated  as  quick  or.  logical,  it 
would  be  much  more  accurate  to  designate  the  particular  mem- 
ory. The  same  person  may  have  a  splendid  desultory  memory 
for  gossip  and  yet  in  science  be  of  the  logical  type.  In  learning 
French  vocabularies  he  may  have  only  a  good  immediate  mem- 
ory, whereas  his  memory  for  faces  may  be  most  lasting.  His 
ability  to  learn  facts  in  history  may  class  him  as  a  quick  learner, 
whereas  his  slowness  in  learning  music  may  be  proverbial.  The 
degree  to  which  quickness  of  learning  or  permanence  of  memory 
in  one  line  is  correlated  with  that  same  ability  in  others  has  not 
yet  been  ascertained.  That  there  is  some  correlation  is  prob- 
able, but  at  present  the  safest  way  is  to  think  in  terms  of  special 
memories  and  special  acquisitions.  Some  experimental  work 
has  been  done  to  discover  the  order  in  which  special  memories 
develop  in  children.  The  results,  however,  are  not  in  agree- 
ment and  the  experiments  themselves  are  unsatisfactory.  That 
there  is  some  more  or  less  definite  order  of  development,  parallel- 
ing to  a  certain  extent  the  growth  of  instincts,  is  probable,  but 
nothing  more  definite  is  known  than  observation  teaches.  For 
instance,  every  observer  of  children  knows  that  memory  for 
objects  develops  before  memory  for  words;  that  memory  for 
gestures  preceded  memory  for  words ;  that  memory  for  oral 
language  preceded  memory  for  written  language ;  that  memory 
for  concrete  objects  preceded  memory  for  abstractions.  Further 
knowledge  of  the  development  of  special  memories  should  be 
accompanied  by  knowledge  as  to  how  far  this  development  is 
dependent  on  training  and  to  what  extent  lack  of  memory  in- 
volves lack  of  understanding  before  it  can  be  of  much  practical 
value  to  the  teacher. 

Just  as  repetition  or  exercise  tends  to  fix  a  fact  in  memory, 


HOW  TO  MEMORIZE  83 

so  disuse  of  a  connection  results  in  the  fact  fading  from  memory. 
*' Forgetting"  is  a  matter  of  everyday  experience  for  every  one. 
The  rate  of  forgetting  has  been  the  subject  of  experimental  work. 
Ebbinghaus's  investigation  is  the  historical  one.  The  results 
from  this  particular  series  of  experiments  are  as  follows  :  During 
the  first  hour  after  study  over  half  of  what  was  learned  had  been 
forgotten ;  at  the  end  of  the  first  day  two  thirds,  and  at  the  end 
of  a  month  about  four  fifths.  These  results  have  been  accepted 
as  capable  of  rather  general  application  until  within  the  last  few 
years.  Recent  experiments  in  learning  poetry,  translation  of 
French  into  English,  practice  in  addition  and  multiplication, 
learning  to  toss  balls  and  to  typewrite,  and  others,  make  clear 
that  there  is  no  general  curve  of  forgetting.  The  rate  of  for- 
getting is  more  rapid  soon  after  the  practice  period  than  later, 
but  the  total  amount  forgotten  and  the  rate  of  deterioration 
depend  upon  the  particular  function  tested.  No  one  function 
can  serve  as  a  sample  for  others.  No  one  curve  of  forgetting 
exists  for  different  functions  at  the  same  stage  of  advancement 
or  for  the  same  function  at  different  stages  of  advancement  in  the 
same  individual,  much  less  for  different  functions,  at  different 
stages  of  advancement,  in  different  individuals.  Much  more 
experimental  work  is  needed  before  definite  general  results  can 
be  stated. 

This  experimental  work,  however,  is  suggestive  along  several 
lines,  (i)  It  seems  possible  that  habits  of  skill,  involving  direct 
sensori-motor  bonds,  are  more  permanent  than  memories  in- 
volving connections  between  association  bonds.  In  other 
words,  that  physical  habits  are  more  lasting  than  memories  of 
intellectual  facts.  (2)  Overlearning  seems  a  necessary  correlate 
of  permanence  of  connection.  That  is,  what  seems  to  be  over- 
learning  at  beginning  stages  is  really  only  raising  the  material 
to  the  necessary  level  above  the  threshold  for  retention.  How 
far  overlearning  is  necessary  and  when  it  becomes  wasteful  are 


84  HOW  TO  TEACH 

yet  to  be  determined.  (3)  Deterioration  is  hastened  by  com- 
peting connections.  If  during  the  time  a  particular  function 
is  lying  idle  other  bonds  of  connection  are  being  formed  into 
some  parts  or  elements  of  it,  the  rate  of  forgetting  of  the  function 
in  question  is  hastened  and  the  possibility  of  recall  made  more 
problematic.  The  less  the  interference,  the  greater  will  be  the 
permanence  of  the  particular  bonds. 

A  belief  maintained  by  some  psychologists  is  in  direct  op- 
position to  this  general  law  that  disuse  causes  deterioration.  It 
is  usually  stated  something  like  this,  that  periods  of  incubation 
are  necessary  in  acquiring  skill,  or  that  letting  a  function  lie 
fallow  results  in  greater  skill  at  the  end  of  that  period,  or  briefly 
one  learns  to  skate  in  summer  and  swim  in  winter.  To  some 
extent  this  is  true,  but  as  stated  it  is  misleading.  The  general 
law  of  the  effect  of  disuse  on  a  memory  is  true,  but  under  some 
circumstances  its  effect  is  mitigated  by  the  presence  of  other 
factors  whose  presence  has  been  unnoted.  Sometimes  this  im- 
provement without  practice  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  at  the 
last  practice  period  the  actual  improvement  was  masked  by 
fatigue  or  boredom,  so  that  disuse  involving  rest  and  the  dis- 
appearance of  fatigue  and  boredoni  produces  apparent  gain, 
when  in  reality  it  but  allows  the  real  improvement  to  become 
evident.  Sometimes  a  particular  practice  period  was  accom- 
panied by  certain  undesirable  elements  such  as  worry,  excite- 
ment, misunderstandings,  and  so  on,  and  therefore  the  improve- 
ment hindered  or  masked,  whereas  at  the  next  period  under 
different  conditions  there  would  be  less  interference  and  there- 
fore added  gain.  All  experimental  evidence  is  against  the 
opinion  that  mere  disuse  in  and  of  itself  produces  gain.  In  fact, 
all  results  point  to  the  fact  that  disuse  brings  deterioration. 

In  the  case  of  memory,  as  has  already  been  described  in  habit 
formation,  reviews  which  are  organized  with  the  period  between 
repetitions  only  gradually  lengthened  may  do  much  to  insure 


HOW  TO  MEMORIZE  85 

permanence.  It  is  entirely  feasible  to  have  children  at  the  end 
of  any  school  year  able  to  repeat  the  poems  or  prose  selections 
which  they  have  memorized,  provided  that  they  have  been  re- 
called with  sufficient  frequency  during  the  course  of  the  year. 
In  a  subject  like  geography  or  history,  or  in  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics or  science,  in  which  logical  memory  is  demanded,  syste- 
matic reviews,  rather  than  cramming  for  examinations,  will 
result  in  permanence  of  command  of  the  facts  or  principles 
involved,  especially  when  these  reviews  have  involved  the  right 
type  of  organization  and  as  many  associations  as  is  possible. 

It  is  important  in  those  subjects  which  involve  a  logical  or- 
ganization of  ideas  to  have  ideas  associated  around  some  par- 
ticular problem  or  situation  in  which  the  individual  is  vitally 
interested.  Children  may  readily  forget  a  large  number  of  facts 
which  they  have  learned  about  cats  in  the  first  grade,  while  the 
same  children  might  remember,  very  many  of  them,  had  these 
facts  been  organized  round  the  problem  of  taking  care  of  cats, 
and  of  how  cats  take  care  of  themselves.  A  group  of  children 
in  an  upper  grade  may  forget  with  great  rapidity  the  facts  of 
climate,  soil,  surface  drainage,  industries,  and  the  like,  while 
they  may  remember  with  little  difficulty  facts  which  belong 
under  each  of  these  categories  on  account  of  the  interest  which 
they  have  taken  in  the  problem,  ''Why  is  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  much  more  sparsely  populated  than  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley?  "  Boys  and  girls  who  study  physics  in  the  high 
school  may  find  it  difficult  to  remember  the  principles  involved 
in  their  study  of  heat  if  they  are  given  only  in  their  logical  order 
and  are  applied  only  in  laboratory  exercises  which  have  little  or 
no  meaning  for  them,  while  the  same  group  of  high  school  pupils 
may  remember  without  difficulty  these  same  laws  or  principles 
if  associated  round  the  issue  of  the  most  economical  way  of  heat- 
ing their  houses,  or  of  the  best  way  to  build  an  icehouse. 

There  has  been  in  our  school  system   during  the  past  few 


86  HOW  TO  TEACH 

years  more  or  less  of  a  reaction  against  verbatim  memoriza- 
tion, which  is  certainly  justified  when  we  are  considering  those 
subjects  which  involve  primarily  an  organization  of  ideas  in 
terms  of  problems  to  be  solved,  rather  than  memory  for  the 
particular  form  of  expression  of  the  ideas  in  question.  It  is 
worth  while,  however,  at  every  stage  of  education  to  use  what- 
ever power  children  may  possess  for  verbatim  memorization, 
especially  in  the  field  of  literature,  and  to  some  extent  in  other 
fields  as  well.  It  seems  to  the  writers  to  be  worth  while  to  in- 
dicate as  clearly  as  possible  in  the  illustration  which  follows 
the  method  to  be  employed  in  verbatim  memorization.  As 
will  be  easily  recognized,  the  number  and  organization  of  asso- 
ciations are  an  important  consideration.  It  is  especially  im- 
portant to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  any  attempt  at  verbatim 
memorization  should  follow  a  very  careful  thinking  through  of 
the  whole  selection  to  be  memorized.  An  organization  of  the 
ideas  in  terms  of  that  which  is  most  important,  and  that  which 
can  be  subordinated  to  these  larger  thoughts,  a  combination 
of  method  of  learning  by  wholes  and  by  parts,  is  involved. 

It  is  not  easy  to  indicate  fully  the  method  by  which  one  would 
attempt  to  teach  to  a  group  of  sixth-grade  boys  or  girls  Words- 
worth's ''Daffodils."  The  main  outline  of  the  method  may, 
however,  be  indicated  as  follows :  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is 
to  arouse,  in  so  far  as  is  possible,  some  interest  and  enthusiasm 
for  the  poem  in  question.  One  might  suggest  to  the  class  some- 
thing of  the  beauty  of  the  high,  rugged  hills,  and  of  the  lakes 
nestling  among  them  in  the  region  which  is  called  the  ''Lake 
Region"  in  England.  The  Wordsworth  cottage  near  one  of  the 
lakes,  and  at  the  foot  of  one  of  the  high  hills,  together  with  the 
walk  which  is  to  this  day  called  Wordsworth's  Walk,  can  be 
brought  to  the  mind,  especially  by  a  teacher  who  has  taken  the 
trouble  to  know  something  of  Wordsworth's  home  life.  The 
enthusiasm  of  the  poet  for  the  beauties  of  nature  and  his  en- 


HOW  TO  MEMORIZE  87 

joyment  in  walking  over  the  hills  and  around  the  lakes,  is  sug- 
gested by  the  poem  itself.  One  might  suggest  to  the  pupils 
that  this  is  the  story  of  a  walk  which  he  took  one  morning  early 
in  the  spring. 

The  attempt  will  be  made  from  this  point  on  to  give  the 
illustration  as  the  writer  might  have  hoped  to  have  it  recorded 
as  presented  to*  a  particular  class.  The  poet  tells  us  first  of  his 
loneliness  and  of  the  surprise  which  was  his  when  he  caught 
sight  for  the  first  time  of  the  daffodils  which  had  blossomed 
since  the  last  time  that  he  had  taken  this  particular  walk : 

**I  wandered  lonely  as  a  cloud 
That  floats  on  high  o'er  vales  and  hills, 
When  all  at  once  I  saw  a  crowd, 
A  host,  of  golden  daffodils ; 
Beside  the  lake,  beneath  the  trees. 
Fluttering  and  dancing  in  the  breeze." 

You  see,  he  was  not  expecting  to  meet  any  one  or  to  have  any 
unusual  experience.  He  ''wandered  lonely  as  a  cloud  that  floats 
on  high  o'er  vales  and  hills,"  and  his  surprise  was  complete  when 
he  saw  suddenly,  —  "all  at  once  I  saw  a  crowd,  a  host  of  golden 
daffodils,  beside  the  lake,  beneath  the  trees."  You  might  have 
said  that  they  were  waving  in  the  wind,  but  he  saw  them  "flut- 
tering and  dancing  in  the  breeze." 

The  daffodils  as  they  waved  and  danced  in  the  breeze  sug- 
gested to  him  the  experience  which  he  had  had  on  other  walks 
which  he  had  taken  when  the  stars  were  shining,  and  he  compares 
the  golden  daffodils  to  the  shining,  twinkling  stars : 

"Continuous  as  the  stars  that  shine 
And  twinkle  on  the  Milky  Way, 
They  stretched  in  never-ending  Hne 
Along  the  margin  of  a  bay ; 
Ten  thousand  saw  I  at  a  glance, 
Tossing  their  heads  in  sprightly  dance." 


88  HOW  TO  TEACH 

The  daffodils  were  as  ''continuous  as  the  stars  that  shine 
and  twinkle  on  the  Milky  Way."  There  was  no  beginning 
and  no  end  to  the  line,  —  "They  stretched  in  never-ending  line 
along  the  margin  of  a  bay."  He  saw  as  many  daffodils  as  one 
might  see  stars,  —  ''Ten  thousand  saw  I  at  a  glance,  tossing 
their  heads  in  sprightly  dance." 

The  poet  has  enjoyed  the  beauty  of  the  little  rippling  waves 
in  the  lake,  and  he  tells  us  that 

"The  waves  beside  them  danced ;  but  they 
Outdid  the  sparkling  waves  in  glee : 
A  poet  could  not  but  be  gay, 
In  such  a  jocund  company : 
I  gazed  —  and  gazed,  —  but  little  thought 
What  wealth  the  show  to  me  had  brought :  " 

The  daffodils  have  really  left  the  poet  with  a  great  joy,  — 
the  waves  beside  the  daffodils  are  dancing,  "but  they  outdid 
the  sparkling  waves  in  glee,"  and  of  course  "a  poet  could  not 
but  be  gay  in  such  a  jocund  company."  Had  you  ever  thought 
of  flowers  as  a  jocund  company  ?  You  remember  they  fluttered 
and  danced  in  the  breeze,  they  lifted  their  heads  in  sprightly 
dance.  Do  you  wonder  that  the  poet  says  of  his  experience, 
"I  gazed  —  and  gazed, — but  little  thought  what  wealth  the 
show  to  me  had  brought "  ?  I  wonder  if  any  of  you  have  ever  had 
a  similar  experience.  I  remember  the  days  when  I  used  to  go 
fishing,  and  there  is  a  great  joy  even  now  in  recalling  the  twitter 
of  the  birds  and  the  hum  of  the  bees  as  I  lay  on  the  bank  and 
waited  for  the  fish  to  bite. 

And  what  is  the  great  joy  which  is  his,  and  which  may  belong 
to  us,  if  we  really  see  the  beautiful  things  in  nature?  He  tells 
us  when  he  says 

"  For  oft,  when  on  my  couch  I  lie 
In  vacant  or  in  pensive  mood, 
They  flash  upon  that  inward  eye 


HOW  TO  MEMORIZE  89 

Which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude ; 

And  then  my  heart  with  pleasure  fills, 

And  dances  with  the  daffodils." 

There  are  days  when  we  cannot  get  out  of  doors,  —  "For  oft, 
when  on  my  couch  I  lie  in  vacant  or  in  pensive  mood,"  —  these 
are  the  days  when  we  recall  the  experiences  which  we  have  en- 
joyed in  the  days  which  are  gone,  —  "they  flash  upon  that  in- 
ward eye  which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude."  And  then  for  the  poet, 
as  well  as  for  us,  "And  then  my  heart  with  pleasure  fills,  and 
dances  with  the  daffodils." 

Now  let  us  get  the  main  ideas  in  the  story  which  the  poet  tells 
us  of  his  adventure.  "  I  wandered  lonely  as  a  cloud  that  floats 
on  high  o'er  vales  and  hills,"  "  I  saw  a  crowd,  a  host,  of  golden 
daffodils,"  they  were  "  beside  the  lake,  beneath  the  trees,  flutter- 
ing and  dancing  in  the  breeze."  They  reminded  me  as  I  saw 
the  beautiful  arched  line  of  "the  stars  that  shine  and  twinkle 
on  the  Milky  Way,"  because  "  they  stretched  in  never-ending 
line  along  the  margin  of  a  bay";  and  as  I  watched  "ten  thou- 
sand "  I  saw,  "  tossing  their  heads  in  sprightly  dance."  And  then 
they  reminded  me  of  the  waves  which  sparkled  near  by,  "but 
they  outdid  the  sparkling  waves  in  glee,"  and  in  the  happiness 
which  was  mine,  "I  gazed  —  and  gazed, — but  little  thought 
what  wealth  the  show  to  me  had  brought."  And  that  happiness 
I  can  depend  upon  when  upon  my  couch  I  lie  in  vacant  or  in 
pensive  mood,  for  "they  flash  upon  that  inward  eye  which  is 
the  bliss  of  solitude,"  and  my  heart  will  fill  with  pleasure  and 
dance  with  the  daffodils. 

These,  then,  are  the  big  ideas  which  the  poet  has,  —  he 
wanders  lonely  as  a  cloud,  he  enjoys  the  great  surprise  of  the 
daffodils,  the  great  crowd,  the  host,  of  golden  daffodils,  flutter- 
ing and  dancing  in  the  breeze ;  he  thinks  of  the  stars  that  twinkle 
in  the  Milky  Way,  because  the  line  of  daffodils  seems  to  have  no 
beginning  and  no  end,  —  he  sees  ten  thousand  of  them  at  a 


QO  HOW  TO  TEACH 

glance,  tossing  their  heads  in  sprightly  dance.  And  as  he  looks 
at  them  he  thinks  of  the  beauty  of  the  sparkling  waves,  and 
thinks  of  them  as  they  dance  with  glee,  and  he  gazes  and  gazes 
without  thinking  of  the  wealth  of  the  experience.  But  later 
when  he  writes  the  poem,  he  tells  us  of  the  wealth  of  the  experi- 
ence which  can  last  through  all  of  the  days  when  he  lies  on  his 
couch  in  vacant  or  in  pensive  mood,  for  it  is  then  that  this  experi- 
ence flashes  upon  that  inward  eye  which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude, 
and  his  heart  fills  with  pleasure  and  dances  with  the  daffodils. 

Now  let  us  say  it  all  over  again,  and  see  how  nearly  we  are 
able  to  recall  the  story  of  his  experience  in  just  the  words  that 
he  used.  I  will  read  it  for  you  first,  and  then  you  may  all  try  to 
repeat  it  after  me. 

The  teacher  then  reads  the  whole  poem  through,  possibly 
more  than  once,  and  then  asks  all  of  the  children  to  recite  it 
with  him,  repeating  possibly  the  first  stanza  twice  or  three  times 
until  they  get  it,  and  then  the  second  stanza  two  or  three  times, 
then  the  third  as  often  as  may  be  necessary,  and  finally  the 
fourth.  It  may  be  well  then  to  go  back  and  again  analyze  the 
thought,  and  indicate,  using  as  far  as  possible  the  author's  own 
words,  the  developmeiit  of  ideas  through  the  poem.  Then  the 
poem  should  be  recited  as  a  whole  by  the  teacher  and  chil- 
dren. The  children  may  then  be  left  to  study  it  so  that  they 
may  individually  on  the  next  day  recite  it  verbatim.  The  writer 
has  found  it  possible  to  have  a  number  of  children  in  a  sixth 
grade  able  to  repeat  the  poem  verbatim  after  the  kind  of  treat- 
ment indicated  above,  and  at  the  end  of  a  period  of  fifteen 
minutes. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Distinguish  in  so  far  as  you  can  between  habit  and  memory. 

2.  Name  the  factors  which  determine  one's  ability  to  recall. 

3.  How  can  you  hope  to  improve  children's  memories?  Which  of 
the  factors  involved  are  subject  to  improvement  ? 


HOW  TO  MEMORIZE  91 

4.  In  what  way  can  you  improve  the  organization  of  associations 
upon  the  part  of  children  in  any  one  of  the  subjects  which  you  teach? 
How  increase  the  number  of  associations  ? 

5.  What  advantage  has  the  method  of  concentration  over  the  method 
of  repetition  in  memorization? 

6.  Give  the  reasons  why  the  method  of  recall  is  the  best  method  of 
memorization. 

7.  If  you  were  teaching  a  poem  of  four  stanzas,  would  you  use  the 
method  of  memorization  by  wholes  or  by  parts?  Indicate  clearly  the 
degree  to  which  the  one  or  the  other  method  should  be  used  or  the  nature 
of  the  combination  of  methods  for  the  particular  selection  which  you  use 
for  the  purposes  of  illustration. 

8.  How  long  do  children  in  your  classes  seem  to  be  able  to  work  hard 
at  verbatim  memorization  ? 

9.  Under  what  conditions  may  the  writing  of  the  material  being  memo- 
rized actually  interfere  with  the  process  ?     When  may  it  help  ? 

10.  Why  may  it  not  be  wise  to  attempt  to  teach  "their"  and  "there" 
at  the  same  time? 

11.  What  is  the  type  of  memory  employed  by  children  who  have  con- 
siderable ability  in  cramming  for  examinations  ?  Is  this  type  of  memory 
ever  useful  in  later  life  ? 

12.  What  precaution  do  we  need  to  take  to  insure  permanence  in  memory 
upon  the  part  of  those  who  learn  quickly  ? 

13.  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  we  possess  memories  rather  than  a 
power  or  capacity  called  memory? 

14.  Do  we  forget  with  equal  rapidity  in  all  fields  in  which  we  have  learned  ? 
What  factors  determine  the  rate  of  forgetting  ? 

15.  Why  should  a  boy  think  through  a  poem  to  be  memorized  rather 
than  beginning  his  work  by  trying  to  repeat  the  first  two  lines  ? 


VI 

THE    TEACHER'S    USE    OF    THE    IMAGINATION 

Imagination  is  governed  by  the  same  general  laws  of  associa- 
tion which  control  habit  and  memory.  In  these  two  former 
topics  the  emphasis  was  upon  getting  a  desired  result,  without 
any  attention  to  the  form  of  that  result.  Imagination,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  to  do  with  the  way  past  experience  is  used  and 
the  form  taken  by  the  result.  It  merges  into  memory  in  one 
direction  and  into  thinking  in  another.  No  one  definition  has 
been  found  acceptable  —  in  fact,  in  no  field  of  psychology  is 
there  more  difference  of  opinion,  in  no  topic  are  terms  used  more 
loosely,  than  in  this  one  of  imagination.  Stated  in  very  general 
terms,  imagination  is  the  process  of  reproducing  or  reconstruct- 
ing any  form  of  experience.  The  result  of  such  a  process  is  a 
mental  image.  When  the  fact  that  it  is  reproduction  or  recon- 
struction is  lost  sight  of,  and  the  image  reacted  to  as  if  it  were 
present,  an  illusion  or  hallucination  results. 

Images  may  be  classified  according  to  the  sense  through 
which  the  original  experience  came,  into  visual,  auditory,  gusta- 
tory, tactile,  kinaesthetic,  and  so  on.  In  many  discussions  of 
imagery  the  term  ''picture"  has  been  used  to  describe  it,  and 
hence  in  the  thought  of  many  it  is  limited  rather  definitely  to 
the  visual  field.  Of  course  this  is  entirely  wrong.  The  recall 
of  a  melody,  or  of  the  touch  of  velvet,  or  of  the  fragrance  of  a 
rose,  is  just  as  much  mental  imagery  as  the  recall  of  the  sight  of 
a  friend. 

Three  points  of  dispute  in  connection  with  image  types  are 
worth  while  noting.     First,  the  question  is  raised  by  some  psy- 

92 


THE  TEACHER'S  USE  OF  THE  IMAGINATION  93 

chologists  as  to  whether  kinaesthetic  or  motor  images  really 
exist.  An  example  of  such  an  image  would  be  to  imagine  your- 
self as  dancing,  or  walking  downstairs,  or  writing  your  name,  or 
saying  the  word  *' bubble."  Those  who  object  to  such  an  image 
type  claim  that  when  one  tries  to  get  such  an  image,  the  attempt 
initiates  shght  muscle  movements  and  the  result  is  a  sense  ex- 
perience instead  of  an  imaged  one.  They  believe  this  always 
happens  and  that  therefore  a  motor  image  is  an  impossibihty. 
Others  agree  that  this  reinstatement  of  actual  movements  often 
happens,  but  contend  that  in  such  cases  the  image  precedes  the 
movement  and  that  the  resulting  movement  does  not  always 
take  place.     The  question  is  still  in  dispute. 

The  second  question  in  dispute  is  as  to  the  possibility  of 
classifying  people  according  to  the  predominant  type  of  their 
imagery.  People  used  to  be  classed  as  '' visualizers,"  "audiles," 
etc.,  the  supposition  being  that  their  mental  imagery  was  pre- 
dominantly in  terms  of  vision  or  hearing.  This  is  being  seriously 
questioned,  and  experimental  work  seems  to  show  that  such  a 
classification,  at  least  with  the  majority  of  people,  is  impossible. 
The  results  which  are  believed  to  warrant  such  a  conclusion  are 
as  follows :  First,  no  one  has  ever  been  tested  who  always  used 
one  type  of  image.  Second,  the  type  of  image  used  changed 
with  the  following  factors  :  the  material,  the  purpose  of  the  sub- 
ject, the  famiharity  of  the  subject  with  the  experience  imagined. 
For  example,  the  same  person  would,  perhaps,  visuaHze  if  he 
were  imaging  landscape,  but  get  an  auditory  image  of  a  friend's 
voice  instead  of  a  visual  image  of  him.  He  might,  when  under 
experimental  conditions  with  the  controlling  purpose,  —  that  of 
examining  his  images, — get  visual  images,  but,  when  under  ordi- 
nary conditions,  get  a  larger  number  of  auditory  and  kinaesthetic 
images.  He  might  when  thought  was  flowing  smoothly  be  using 
auditory  and  motor  images,  but  upon  the  appearance  of  some 
obstacle  or  difficulty  in  the  process  find  himself  flooded  with 


94  HOW  TO  TEACH 

visual  images.  Third,  subjects  who  ranked  high  in  one  type  of 
imagery  ranked  high  in  others,  and  subjects  who  ranked  low  in 
one  type  ranked  low  also  in  others.  The  abiHty  seems  to  be 
that  of  getting  clear  image  types,  or  the  lack  of  it,  rather  than 
the  ability  to  get  one  type.  Fourth,  most  of  the  subjects  re- 
ported that  the  first  image  was  usually  followed  by  others  of 
different  types.  The  conclusions  then,  that  individuals,  chil- 
dren as  well  as  adults,  are  rarely  of  one  fixed  type,  the  mixed 
type  being  the  usual  one,  is  being  generally  accepted.  In  fact,  it 
seems  much  more  probable  that  materials  and  outside  condi- 
tions can  more  easily  be  classified  as  usually  arousing  a  certain 
type  of  image,  than  people  can  be  classified  into  types. 

The  third  point  of  controversy  grows  out  of  the  second. 
Some  psychologists  are  asking  what  is  the  value  of  such  a  classi- 
fication ?  Suppose  people  could  be  put  under  types  in  imagery, 
what  would  be  the  practical  advantage?  Such  an  attempt  at 
classification  is  futile  and  not  worth  while,  for  two  reasons. 
First,  the  result  of  the  mental  processes  —  the  goal  arrived  at 
is  the  important  thing,  and  the  particular  type  of  image  used 
is  of  little  importance.  Does  it  make  any  difference  to  the  busi- 
ness man  whether  his  clerk  thinks  in  terms  of  the  visual  images 
of  words  or  in  terms  of  motor  images  so  long  as  he  sells  the  goods  ? 
To  the  teacher  of  geography,  does  it  make  any  difference  whether 
John  in  his  thinking  of  the  value  of  trees  is  seeing  them  in  his 
mind's  eye,  or  hearing  the  wind  rustle  through  the  leaves,  or 
smelling  the  moist  earth,  leaf-mold,  or  having  none  of  these 
images,  if  he  gets  the  meaning,  and  reaches  a  right  conclu- 
sion? Second,  the  sense  which  gives  the  clearest,  most  depend- 
able impressions  is  not  the  one  necessarily  in  terms  of  which 
the  experience  is  recalled.  One  of  the  chief  values  urged  for  a 
classification  according  to  image  type  of  people,  especially  chil- 
dren, has  been  that  the  appeal  could  then  be  made  through  the 
corresponding    sense    organs.     For  instance.  Group    A,   being 


THE  TEACHER'S  USE  OE  THE  IMAGINATION  95 

visualizers,  will  be  asked  to  read  the  material  silently ;  Group  B, 
audiles,  will  have  the  material  read  to  them ;  Group  C,  mo  tiles, 
will  be  asked  to  read  the  material  orally,  or  asked  to  drama- 
tize it.  For  each  group  the  major  appeal  should  be  made  in 
terms  of  the  sense  corresponding  to  their  image  type.  But  such 
a  correspondence  as  this  does  not  exist.  An  individual  may  learn 
best  by  use  of  his  eyes  and  yet  very  seldom  use  visual  images  in 
recall.  This  is  true  of  most  people  in  reading.  Most  people 
grasp  the  meaning  of  a  passage  better  when  they  read  it  than 
when  they  hear  it  read,  and  yet  the  predominant  type  of  word 
image  is  auditory-motor.  Hence  if  any  classification  of  children 
is  attempted  it  should  be  according  to  the  sense  by  means  of 
which  they  learn  best,  and  not  according  to  some  supposed 
image  type.  Many  methods  of  appeal  for  all  children  is  the 
safest  practical  suggestion. 

Images  may  also  be  classified  according  to  the  use  made  of 
past  experience.  Past  experience  may  be  recalled  in  approxi- 
mately the  same  form  in  which  it  occurred,  or  it  may  be  recon- 
structed. In  the  former  case  the  image  is  called  reproductive 
image  or  memory  image ;  in  the  latter  form  it  is  called  produc- 
tive or  creative  image,  or  image  of  the  imagination.  The  re- 
productive image  never  duplicates  experience,  but  in  its  major 
features  it  closely  corresponds  to  it,  whereas  the  productive 
image  breaks  up  old  experiences  and  from  them  makes  new 
wholes  which  correspond  to  no  definite  occurrence.  The  ele- 
ments found  in  both  kinds  of  imagery  must  come  from  experi- 
ence. One  cannot  imagine  anything  the  elements  of  which  he 
has  not  experienced.  Creative  imagination  transcends  experi- 
ence only  in  the  sense  that  it  remodels  and  remakes,  but  the  re- 
sult of  that  activity  produces  new  wholes  as  far  removed  from 
the  actual  occurrences  as  "Alice  in  Wonderland  "  is  from  the  hum- 
drum life  of  a  tenement  dweller.  Just  the  same,  the  fact  that 
the  elements  used  in  creative  work  must  be  drawn  from  experi- 


96  HOW  TO  TEACH 

ehce  is  extremely  suggestive  from  a  practical  point  of  view.  It 
demonstrates  the  need  of  a  rich  sensory  life  for  every  child.  It 
also  explains  the  reason  for  the  lack  of  appreciation  on  the  part 
of  immature  children  of  certain  types  of  literature  and  certain 
moral  questions.. 

No  more  need  be  said  here  of  the  reproductive  image,  as  it  is 
synonymous  with  the  memory  image  and  was  therefore  treated 
fully  under  the  topic  of  memory.  One  fact  should  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  and  that  is,  that  the  creative  image  is  to  some 
extent  dependent  on  the  reproductive  image  as  it  involves  re- 
call. However,  as  productive  imagery  involves  the  recall  of 
elements  or  parts  rather  than  wholes,  an  individual  may  have 
talent  in  creative  imagery  without  being  above  the  average  in 
exact  reproduction. 

Productive  imagery  may  be  classified  as  fanciful,  realistic,  and 
idealistic  according  to  the  character  of  the  material  used.  Fanci- 
ful productive  imagery  is  characterized  by  its  spontaneity,  its 
disregard  of  the  probable  and  possible,  its  vividness  of  detail. 
It  is  its  own  reward,  and  does  not  look  to  any  result  beyond 
itself.  Little  children's  imaginations  are  of  this  type  —  it  is 
their  play  world  of  make-believe.  The  incongruity  and  absurdity 
of  their  images  have  been  compared  to  the  dreams  of  adults. 
Lacking  in  experience,  without  knowledge  of  natural  laws,  their 
imagination  runs  riot  with  the  materials  it  has  at  its  command. 
Some  adults  still  retain  it  to  a  high  degree  —  witness  the  myths 
and  fairy  stories,  ''Alice  in  Wonderland,"  and  the  like.  All  adults 
in  their  ''castle-building"  indulge  in  this  type  of  imagery  to 
some  extent.  ReaKstic  productive  imagery,  as  its  name  implies, 
adheres  more  strictly  to  actual  conditions,  it  deals  with  the 
probable.  It  usually  is  constructed  for  a  purpose,  being  put  to 
some  end  beyond  itself.  It  lacks  much  of  the  emotional  ele- 
ment possessed  by  the  other  two  types.  This  is  the  kind  most 
valuable  in  reasoning  and  thinking.     It  deals  with  new  situa- 


THE  TEACHER'S  USE  OF  THE  IMAGINATION  97 

tions  —  constructs  them,  creates  means  of  dealing  with  them, 
and  forecasts  the  results.  It  is  the  type  of  productive  imagery 
called  into  play  by  inventors,  by  craftsmen,  by  physicians,  by 
teachers  —  in  fact,  by  any  one  who  tries  to  bring  about  a  change 
in  conditions  by  the  functioning  of  a  definite  thought  process. 
This  is  the  kind  of  imagery  which  most  interests  grammar  school 
pupils.  They  demand  facts,  not  fancies.  They  are  most  active 
in  making  changes  in  a  world  of  things. 

IdeaHstic  productive  imagery  does  not  fly  in  the  face  of  reality 
as  does  the  fanciful,  nor  does  it  adhere  so  strictly  to  facts  as 
does  the  realistic.  It  deals  with  the  possible  —  with  what  may 
be,  but  with  what  is  not  yet.  It  always  looks  to  the  future,  for 
if  realized  it  is  no  longer  idealistic.  It  is  enjoyed  for  its  own 
sake  but  does  not  exist  for  that  alone,  but  looks  towards  some 
result.  It  is  concerned  primarily  with  human  lives  and  has  a 
strong  emotional  tone.  It  is  the  heart  of  ideals.  The  adolescent 
revels  in  this  type  of  productive  imagery.  His  dreams  concern- 
ing his  own  future,  his  service  to  his  fellow  men,  his  success,  and 
the  Hke  involve  much  idealistic  imagery.  Hero  worship  in- 
volves it.  It  is  one  of  the  differences  between  the  man  with 
^'vision"  and  the  man  without. 

The  importance  of  productive  imagery  cannot  be  over- 
emphasized. This  power  to  create  the  new  out  of  the  old  is  one 
of  the  greatest  possessions  of  mankind.  All  progress  in  every 
field,  whether  individual  or  racial,  depends  upon  it.  From  the 
fertility  and  richness  of  man's  productive  imagination  must 
come  all  the  suggestions  which  will  make  this  world  other  than 
what  it  is.  Therefore  one  of  the  greatest  tasks  of  education  at 
present  is  to  cherish  and  cultivate  this  power.  One  cannot  fail 
to  recognize,  however,  that  with  the  emphasis  at  present  so 
largely  upon  memory,  the  cultivation  of  the  imagination  is  being 
pushed  into  the  background  despite  all  our  theories  to  the  con- 
trary.    Not  only  is  productive  imagery  as  a  whole  worth  while, 


98  HOW  TO  TEACH 

but  each  type  is  valuable.  An  adult  lacking  power  of  fanciful 
imagination  lacks  power  to  enjoy  certain  elements  in  life  and 
lacks  a  very  definite  means  of  recreation.  Lacking  in  realistic 
imagination  he  is  unable  to  deal  successfully  with  new  situa- 
tions, but  must  forever  remain  in  bondage  to  the  past.  With- 
out idealistic  imagination  he  lacks  the  motive  which  makes  men 
strive  to  be  better,  more  efficient  —  other  than  what  they  are. 
At  certain  times  in  child  development  one  type  may  need  special 
encouragement,  and  at  another  time  some  other.  All  should, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind  and  developed  along  right  and  whole- 
some lines ;  otherwise,  left  to  itself,  any  one  of  these,  and  especially 
the  last,  may  be  a  source  of  danger  to  the  character. 

Images  may  be  classified  according  to  the  material  dealt  with 
into  object  images  or  concrete  images  and  into  word  or  abstract 
images.  No  one  of  these  terms  is  very  good  as  a  name  of  the 
image  referred  to.  The  first  group  —  object  or  concrete  image 
—  refers  to  an  image  in  which  the  sensory  qualities,  such  as 
color,  size,  rhythm,  sweetness,  harmony,  etc.,  are  present.  The 
images  of  a  friend,  of  a  text-book,  of  the  national  anthem,  of  an 
orange,  of  the  schoolroom,  and  so  on,  would  all  be  object  images. 
A  word  or  abstract  image  is  one  which  is  a  symbol.  It  stands 
for  and  represents  certain  sensory  experiences,  the  quality  of 
which  does  not  appear  in  the  image.  Any  word,  number,  mathe- 
matical or  chemical  symbol  —  in  fact,  any  abstract  symbol  will 
come  under  this  type  of  image.  If  in  the  first  list  of  illustrations, 
instead  of  having  images  of  the  real  objects,  an  individual  had 
images  of  words  in  each  case,  the  images  would  be  abstract  or 
verbal  images.  Abstract  images  shade  into  concrete  by  gradual 
degrees  —  there  is  no  sharp  line  of  division  between  the  two; 
however,  they  do  form  two  different  kinds  of  images,  two  forms 
which  may  have  the  same  meaning. 

The  question  as  to  the  respective  use  and  value  of  these  two 
kinds  of  images  is  given  different  answers.     There  is  no  ques- 


THE  TEACHER'S  USE  OF  THE  IMAGINATION  99 

tion  but  that  the  verbal  image  is  more  economical  than  the 
object  image.  It  saves  energy  and  time.  It  brings  with  it  less 
of  irrelevant  detail  and  is  more  stable  than  the  object  image, 
and  therefore  results  in  more  accurate  thinking.  It  is  abstract 
in  nature  and  therefore  has  more  general  application.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  claimed  for  the  object  image  that  it  neces- 
sarily precedes  the  verbal  image  —  is  fundamental  to  it ;  that 
it  is  essential  in  creative  work  dealing  with  materials  and  sounds 
and  in  the  appreciation  of  certain  types  of  descriptive  literature, 
and  that  in  any  part  of  the  thinking  process  when,  because  of 
difficulty  of  some  kind,  a  percept  would  help,  an  object  image 
would  be  of  the  same  assistance.  It  is  concerning  these  sup- 
posed advantages  of  the  object  image  that  there  has  been  most 
dispute.  There  is  no  proof  that  the  line  of  growth  is  necessarily 
from  percept,  through  object  image,  to  verbal  image.  In  cer- 
tain fields,  notably  smell,  the  object  image  is  almost  absent  and 
yet  the  verbal  images  in  that  field  carry  meaning.  It  is  also 
true  that  people  whose  power  of  getting  clear-cut,  vivid  object 
images  is  almost  nil  seem  to  be  in  nowise  hampered  by  that 
fact  in  their  use  of  the  symbols.  Knowing  the  unreliability  of 
the  object  image,  it  would  seem  very  unsafe  to  use  it  as  the  link 
between  percept  and  symbol.  Much  better  to  connect  the  sym- 
bol directly  with  the  experience  and  let  it  gain  its  meaning  from 
that.  As  to  its  value  in  constructive  work  in  arts,  literature, 
drama,  and  invention,  the  testimony  of  some  experts  in  each 
field  bears  witness  that  it  is  not  a  necessary  accompaniment  of 
success.  The  musician  need  not  hear,  mentally,  all  the  har- 
monies, changes,  intervals ;  he  may  think  them  in  terms  of  notes, 
rests,  etc.,  as  he  composes.  The  poet  need  not  see  the  scene  he 
is  describing ;  verbal  images  may  bear  his  meanings.  Of  course 
this  does  not  mean  that  object  images  may  not  be  present  too, 
but  the  point  is  that  the  worker  is  not  dependent  on  them.  The 
aid  offered  by  object  images  in  time  of  difficulty  is  still  more 


lOO  HOW  TO  TEACH 

open  to  doubt.  As  an  illustration  of  what  is  meant  by  this: 
Suppose  a  child  to  be  given  a  carpeting  example  in  arithmetic 
which  he  finds  himself  unable  to  solve.  The  claim  is  made  that 
if  he  will  then  call  up  a  concrete  image  of  the  room,  he  will  see 
that  the  carpet  is  laid  in  strips  and  that  suggestion  may  set  him 
right.  But  it  has  been  proved  experimentally  over  and  over 
again  that  if  he  doesn't  know  that  carpets  are  laid  that  way,  he 
will  never  get  it  from  the  image,  and  if  he  does  know  it,  he  doesn't 
need  an  object  image.  It  seems  to  be  a  fact  that  object  images 
do  not  function,  in  the  sense  that  one  cannot  get  a  correct 
answer  as  to  color,  or  form,  or  number  from  them.  One  can 
read  off  from  a  concrete  image  what  he  knows  to  be  true  of  it  — ■ 
or  else  it  is  just  guessing.  ''Knowing"  in  each  case  involves 
observation  and  judgment,  and  that  means  verbal  images. 
Students  whose  power  of  concrete  imagery  is  low  do,  on  the 
average,  in  situations  where  a  concrete  image  would  supposedly 
help,  just  as  well  as  students  whose  power  in  this  field  is  high.  It 
does  seem  to  be  true  that  object  images  give  a  vividness  and 
color  to  mental  life  which  may  result  in  a  keener  appreciation  of 
certain  types  of  literature.  This  warmth  and  vividness  which 
object  images  add  to  the  mental  processes  of  those  who  have  them 
is  a  boon. 

On  the  whole,  then,  word  images  are  the  more  valuable  of  the 
two  types.  Upon  them  depends,  primarily,  the  abihty  to  handle 
new  situations,  and  even  in  the  constructive  fields  they  are  all 
sufficient.  These  two  facts,  added  to  the  fact  that  they  are 
more  accurate,  speedy,  and  general  in  application,  makes  them  a 
necessary  part  of  the  mental  equipment  of  an  efficient  worker, 
and  means  that  much  more  attention  must  be  given  to  the 
development  of  productive  symbol  images. 

Two  warnings  should  be  borne  in  mind :  First,  although  the 
object  images  are  not  necessary  in  general,  as  discussed  above, 
to  any  given  individual,  because  of  his  particular  habits  of 


THE  TEACHER'S  US£  OF  THE  IMAGlNAHdN         lOi 

thought,  they  may  be  necessary  accompaniments  to  his  mental 
processes.  Second,  although  object  images  may  not  help  in 
giving  understanding  or  appreciation  under  new  conditions, 
still  the  method  of  asking  students  to  try  to  image  certain  con- 
ditions is  worth  while  because  it  makes  them  stop  and  think, 
which  is  always  a  help.  Whether  they  get  object  or  word 
images  in  the  process  makes  no  difference. 

The  discussion  concerning  the  possibility  of  "imageless'* 
thought,  while  an  interesting  one,  cannot  be  entered  into  here. 
Whether  ^'meanings"  can  exist  in  the  human  mind  apart  from 
any  carrier  in  the  form  of  some  sensory  or  imaginal  state  is  un- 
settled, but  the  discussion  has  drawn  attention  to  at  least  the 
very  fragmentary  nature  of  those  carriers.  A  few  fragments  of 
words,  a  mental  shrug  of  the  shoulder,  a  feeling  of  the  direction 
in  which  a  certain  course  is  leading,  a  consciousness  of  one's 
attitude  towards  a  plan  or  person — and  the  conclusion  is  reached. 
The  thinking,  or  it  may  even  have  been  reasoning,  involved  few 
clear-cut  images  of  any  kind.  The  fragmentary,  schematic 
nature  of  the  carriers  and  the  large  part  played  by  feelings  of 
direction  and  attitude  are  the  rather  astonishing  results  of  the 
introspective  analysis  resulting  from  this  discussion.  This  sort 
of  thinking  is  valuable  for  the  same  reasons  that  thinking  in 
terms  of  words  is  valuable  —  it  only  goes  a  step  further,  but  it 
needs  direction  and  training. 

Images  of  all  kinds  have  been  discussed  as  if  they  stood  out 
clearly  differentiated  from  all  other  types  of  mental  states. 
This  is  necessary  in  order  that  their  peculiar  characteristics 
and  functions  may  be  clear.  However,  they  are  not  so  clearly 
defined  in  actual  mental  life,  but  shade  into  each  other  and  into 
other  mental  states,  giving  rise  to  confusion  and  error.  The  two 
greatest  sources  of  error  are :  first,  the  confusion  of  image  with 
percept,  and  second,  the  confusion  of  memory  image  with  image 
of  the  imagination.     The  chief  difference  between  these  mental 


102  HOW  TO  TEACH 

states  as  they  exist  is  a  difference  in  kind  and  amount  of  asso- 
ciations. These  different  associates  usually  give  to  the  percept 
a  vividness  and  material  reality  which  the  other  two  lack. 
They  give  to  the  memory  image  a  feeling  of  pastness  and  true- 
ness  which  the  image  of  imagination  lacks.  Therefore  lack  of 
certain  associations,  due  to  lack  of  experience  or  knowledge,  or 
presence  of  associations  due  to  these  same  causes  and  to  the 
undue  vividness  of  other  connections,  could  easily  result  in  one 
of  these  states  being  mistaken  for  another.  There  is  no  inherent 
difference  between  them.  The  first  type  of  confusion,  between 
percept  and  image,  has  been  recently  made  the  subject  of  inves- 
tigation. Perky  found  that  even  with  trained  adults,  if  the 
perceptual  stimulus  was  slight,  it  was  mistaken  for  an  image. 
All  illusions  would  come  under  this  head.  Children's  imaginary 
companions,  when  really  believed  in,  are  explained  by  this  con- 
fusion. However,  the  confusion  is  much  more  general  than  these 
illustrations  would  seem  to  imply.  The  fact  that  *'Love  is 
blind,"  that  ''We  see  what  we  look  for"  are  but  statements  of 
this  same  confusion,  and  these  two  facts  enter  into  multitudes 
of  situations  all  through  life.  The  need  to  "see  life  clearly  and 
see  it  whole"  is  an  imperative  one. 

The  second  type  of  confusion,  between  reproductive  and  pro- 
ductive memory,  is  even  more  common.  The  "white  lies"  of 
children,  the  embroidering  of  a  story  by  the  adult,  the  adding 
to  and  adding  to  the  original  experience  until  all  sense  of  what 
really  happened  is  lost,  are  but  ordinary  facts  of  everyday  ex- 
periences. The  unreliability  of  witness  and  testimony  is  due,  in 
part,  to  this  confusion. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  the  process  of  imagination  like  memory? 

2.  What  is  the  relation  of  imagination  to  thinking? 

3.  What  kind  of  images  do  you  seek  to  have  children  use  in  their  work 
in  the  subjects  which  you  teach  ? 


THE  TEACHER'S  USE  OF  THE  IMAGINATION  103 

4.  Can  you  classify  the  members  of  your  class  as  visualizers,  audiles, 
and  the  like  ? 

5.  If  one  learns  most  readily  by  reading  rather  than  hearing,  does  it 
follow  that  his  images  will  be  largely  visual?     Why? 

6.  Give  examples  from  your  own  experience  of  memory  images;  of 
creative  images. 

7.  To  what  degree  does  creative  imagination  depend  upon  past  ex- 
periences ? 

8.  What  t5^e  of  imagery  is  most  important  for  the  work  of  the  in- 
ventor?   The  farmer?    The  social  reformer? 

9.  Of  what  significance  in  the  life  of  an  adult  is  fanciful  imagery  ? 

10.  What,  if  any,  is  the  danger  involved  in  reveling  in  idealistic  produc- 
tive imagery  ? 

11.  What  advantages  do  verbal  images  possess  as  over  against  object 
images  ? 

12.  Why  would  you  ask  children  to  try  to  image  in  teaching  literature, 
geography,  history,  or  any  other  subject  for  which  you  are  responsible  ? 

13.  How  would  you  handle  a  boy  who  is  in  the  habit  of  confusing  mem- 
ory images  with  images  of  imagination  ? 

14.  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  all  progress  is  dependent  upon  productive 
imagination? 


VII 

HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE  STIMULATED 

The  term  "thinking"  has  been  used  ahnost  as  loosely  as  the 
term  ''imagination,"  and  used  to  mean  almost  as  many  differ- 
ent things.  Even  now  there  is  no  consensus  of  opinion  as  to 
just  what  thinking  is.  Dewey  says,  "Active,  persistent,  and 
careful  consideration  of  any  belief  or  supposed  form  of  knowl- 
edge in  the  light  of  the  grounds  that  support  it,  and  the  further 
conclusions  to  which  it  tends,  constitutes  reflective  thought."  ^ 
Miller  says,  "Thinking  is  not  so  much  a  distinct  conscious 
process  as  it  is  an  organization  of  all  the  conscious  processes 
which  are  relevant  in  a  problematic  situation  for  the  perform- 
ance of  the  function  of  consciously  adjusting  means  to  end."  ^ 
Thinking  always  presupposes  some  lack  in  adjustment,  some 
doubt  or  uncertainty,  some  hesitation  in  response.  So  long  as 
the  situation,  because  of  its  simplicity  or  familiarity,  receives 
immediately  a  response  which  satisfies,  there  is  no  need  for 
thinking.  Only  when  the  response  is  inadequate  or  when  no 
satisfactory  response  is  forthcoming  is  thinking  aroused.  By 
far  the  majority  of  the  daily  adjustments  made  by  people,  both 
mental  and  physical,  require  no  thinking  because  instinct,  habit, 
and  memory  suffice.  It  is  only  when  these  do  not  serve  to  pro- 
duce a  satisfactory  response  that  thinking  is  needed  —  only 
when  there  is  something  problematic  in  the  situation.  Even  in 
new  situations  thinking  is  not  always  used  to  bring  about  a 

1  How  We  Think,  p.  6.  2  jhe  Psychology  of  Thinking,  p.  98. 

104 


HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE  STIMULATED  105 

satisfactory  adjustment.  Following  an  instinctive  prompting 
when  confronted  by  a  new  situation ;  blindly  following  an- 
other's lead;  using  the  trial  and  error  method  of  response; 
reacting  to  the  situation  as  to  the  old  situation  most  like  it ;  or 
response  by  analogy  :  all  are  methods  of  dealing  with  new  situ- 
ations which  often  result  in  correct  adjustments,  and  yet  none 
of  which  need  involve  thinking.  This  does  not  mean  that 
these  methods,  save  the  first  mentioned,  may  not  be  accom- 
panied by  thinking ;  but  that  each  of  them  may  be  used 
without  the  conscious  adjustment  of  means  to  end  demanded 
by  thinking.  That  these  methods,  and  not  thinking,  are  the 
ones  most  often  used,  even  by  adults,  in  dealing  with  prob- 
lems, cannot  be  denied.  They  offer  an  easy  means  of  escape 
from  the  more  troublesome  method  of  thinking.  It  is  so  much 
easier  to  accept  what  some  one  else  says,  so  much  easier  to 
agree  with  a  book's  answer  to  a  question  than  to  think  it  out 
for  oneself.  Following  the  first  suggestion  offered,  just  going 
at  things  in  a  hit-or-miss  fashion,  uncritical  response  by  analogy, 
saves  much  time  and  energy  apparently,  and  therefore  these 
methods  are  adopted  and  followed  by  the  majority  of  people 
in  most  of  the  circumstances  of  life.  It  is  human  nature  to 
think  only  when  no  other  method  of  mental  activity  brings  the 
desired  response.     We  think  only  when  we  must. 

Not  only  is  it  true  that  problems  are  ofteiTsolved  correctly  by 
other  methods  than  that  of  thinking,  but  on  the  other  hand 
much  thinking  may  take  place  and  yet  the  result  be  an  incor- 
rect conclusion,  or  perhaps  no  solution  at  all  be  reached.  Think 
of  the  years  of  work  men  have  devoted  to  a  single  problem,  and 
yet  perhaps  at  the  end  of  that  time,  because  of  a  wrong  premise 
or  some  incorrect  data,  have  arrived  at  a  result  that  later  years 
have  proved  to  have  been  utterly  false.  Think  of  the  investi- 
gations being  carried  on  now  in  medicine,  in  science,  in  invention, 
which  because  of  the  lack  of  knowledge  are  still  incomplete,  and 


lo6  HOW   TO   TEACH 

yet  in  each  case  thinking  of  the  most  technical  and  rigorous  type 
has  been  used.  Thinking  cannot  be  considered  in  terms  of  the 
result.  Correct  results  may  be  obtained,  even  in  problematic 
situations,  with  no  thinking,  and  on  the  other  hand  much  think- 
ing may  be  done  and  yet  the  results  reached  be  entirely  unsat- 
isfactory. Thinking  is  a  process  involving  a  certain  definite 
procedure.  It  is  the  organization  of  all  mental  states  toward 
a  certain  definite  end,  but  is  not  any  one  mental  state.  In  cer- 
tain types  of  situations  this  procedure  is  the  one  most  certain  of 
reaching  correct  conclusions,  in  some  situations  it  is  the  only 
possible  one,  but  the  conclusion  is  not  the  thinking  and  its 
correctness  does  not  differentiate  the  process  from  others. 

From  the  foregoing  discussions  it  must  not  be  deduced  that 
because  of  the  specific  nature  and  the  difficulty  of  thinking  that 
the  power  is  given  only  to  adults.  On  the  contrary,  the  power 
is  rooted  in  the  original  equipment  of  the  human  race  and  de- 
velops gradually,  just  as  all  other  original  capacities  do.  Chil- 
dren under  three  years  of  age  manifest  it.  True,  the  situ- 
ations calling  it  out  are  very  simple,  and  to  the  adult  seem  often 
trivial,  as  they  most  often  occur  in  connection  with  the  child's 
play,  but  they  none  the  less  call  for  the  adjustment  of  means  to 
end,  which  is  thinking.  A  lost  toy,  the  absence  of  a  playmate, 
the  breaking  of  a  cup,  a  thunderstorm,  these  and  hundreds 
of  other  events  of  daily  life  are  occasions  which  may  arouse 
thinking  on  the  part  of  a  little  child.  It  is  not  the  type  of  sit- 
uation, nor  its  dignity,  that  is  the  important  thing  in  thinking, 
but  the  way  in  which  it  is  dealt  with.  The  incorrectness  of  a 
child's  data,  their  incompleteness  and  lack  of  organization, 
often  result  in  incorrect  conclusions,  and  still  his  thinking  may 
be  absolutely  sound.  The  difference  between  the  child  and  the 
adult  in  this  power  is  a  difference  in  degree  —  both  possess  the 
power.  As  Dewey  says,  ^'Only  by  making  the  most  of  the 
thought-factor,  already  active  in  the  experience  of  childhood, 


HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE  STIMULATED  107 

is  there  any  promise  or  warrant  for  the  emergence  of  superior 
reflective  power  at  adolescence,  or  at  any  later  period."  ^ 

Thinking,  then,  is  involved  in  any  response  which  comes  as 
a  result  of  the  conscious  adaptation  of  means  to  end  in  a  prob- 
lematic situation.  Many  of  the  processes  of  mental  activity- 
which  have  been  given  other  names  may  involve  this  process. 
Habit  formation  —  when  the  learner  analyzes  his  progress  or 
failure,  when  he  tries  to  find  a  short  cut,  or  when  he  seeks  for  an 
incentive  to  insure  greater  improvement  —  may  serve  as  a 
situation  calling  for  thinking.  The  process  of  apperceiving  or  of 
assimilation  may  involve  it.  Studying  and  trying  to  remember 
may  involve  it.  Constructive  imagination  often  calls  for  it. 
Reasoning  always  requires  it.  In  the  older  psychology  reason- 
ing and  thinking  were  often  used  as  synonyms,  but  more  re- 
cently it  has  been  accepted  by  most  psychologists  that  reason- 
ing is  simply  one  type  of  thinking,  the  most  advanced  type, 
and  the  most  demanding  type,  but  not  the  only  one.  Thinking 
may  go  on  (as  in  the  other  processes  just  mentioned)  without 
reasoning,  but  all  reasoning  must  involve  thinking.  It  is  this 
lack  of  differentiation  between  reasoning  and  thinking,  the 
attempt  to  make  of  all  thinking,  reasoning,  that  has  limited 
teachers  in  their  attempts  to  develop  thinking  upon  the  part  of 
their  pupils. 

The  essentials  of  the  thinking  process  are  three :  (i)  a  state 
of  doubt  or  uncertainty,  resulting  in  suspended  judgment ;  (2) 
an  organization  and  control  of  mental  states  in  view  of  an  end 
to  be  attained ;  (3)  a  critical  attitude  involving  selection  and 
rejection  of  suggestions  offered.  The  recognition  of  some  lack 
of  adjustment,  the  feeling  of  need  for  something  one  hasn't, 
is  the  only  stimulus  toward  thinking.  This  problematic  situ- 
ation, resulting  in  suspended  judgment,  caused  by  the  inade- 
quacy of  present  power  or  knowledge,  may  arise  in  connection 

1  How  We  Think,  p.  66. 


Io8  HOW  TO  TEACH 

with  any  situation.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  terms  "prob- 
lematic situation"  and  "feeling  of  inadequacy"  have  been  dis- 
cussed almost  entirely  in  connection  with  situations  when  the 
result  has  some  pragmatic  value.  There  is  no  question  but  what 
the  situation  arousing  thinking  must  be  a  live  one  and  a  real 
one,  but  it  need  not  be  one  the  answer  to  which  will  be  useful. 
It  is  true  that  with  the  majority  of  people,  both  children  and 
adults,  a  problem  of  this  type  will  be  more  often  effective  in 
arousing  the  thinking  process  than  a  problem  of  a  more  abstract 
nature,  but  it  is  not  always  so,  nor  necessarily  so.  Most  chil- 
dren sometimes,  and  some  children  most  of  the  time,  enjoy  thinking 
simply  for  the  sake  of  the  activity.  They  do  not  need  the  con- 
crete, pragmatic  situation  —  anything,  no  matter  how  abstract, 
that  arouses  their  curiosity  or  appeals  to  their  love  of  mastery 
offers  enough  of  a  problem.  Sometimes  children  are  vitally 
interested  in  working  geometrical  problems,  translating  diffi- 
cult passages  in  Latin,  striving  to  invent  the  perpetual  motion 
machine,  even  though  there  is  no  evident  and  useful  result.  It 
is  not  the  particular  type  of  situation  that  is  the  thing  to  be 
considered,  but  the  attitude  that  it  arouses  in  the  individual 
concerned.  Educators  in  discussion  of  the  situations  that  make 
for  thinking  must  allow  for  individual  differences  and  must  plan 
for  the  intellectually  minded  as  well  as  for  others. 

The  thinker  confronted  by  a  situation  for  which  his  pres- 
ent knowledge  is  not  adequate,  recognizes  the  difficulty  and 
suspends  judgment;  in  other  words,  does  not  jump  at  a  con- 
clusion but  undertakes  to  think  it  out.  To  do  this  control  is 
continually  necessary.  He  must  keep  his  problem  continually 
before  him  and  work  directly  for  its  solution,  avoiding  delays, 
avoiding  being  side-tracked.  This  means,  of  course,  the  critical 
attitude  towards  all  suggestions  offered.  Each  one  as  it  comes 
must  be  inspected  in  the  light  of  the  end  to  be  reached  —  if  it 
does  not  seem  to  help  towards  that  goal,  it  must  be  rejected. 


HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE  STIMULATED  109 

Criticism,  selection,  and  rejection  of  suggestions  offered  must 
continue  as  long  as  the  thinking  process  goes  on.  ''To  main- 
tain the  state  of  doubt  and  to  carry  on  systematic  and  pro- 
tracted inquiry  —  these  are  the  essentials  of  thinking." 

In  order  to  maintain  this  critical  attitude  to  select  and  reject 
suggestions  with  reference  to  a  goal,  the  suggestions  as  they 
come  cannot  be  accepted  as  units  and  followed.  Such  a  pro- 
cedure is  possible  only  when  the  mental  process  is  not  controlled 
by  an  end.  Control  by  a  goal  necessitates  analysis  of  the  sug- 
gestions and  abstraction  of  what  in  them  is  essential  for  the 
particular  problem  in  hand.  It  is  because  no  complete  associ- 
ation at  hand  offers  a  satisfactory  response  to  the  situation  that 
the  need  for  thinking  arises.  Each  association  as  it  comes  must 
be  broken  up,  certain  parts  or  elements  emerge,  certain  relation- 
ships, implications,  or  functions  are  made  conscious.  Each  of 
these  is  examined  in  turn ;  as  they  seem  to  be  valueless  for  the 
purpose  of  the  thinker,  they  are  rejected.  If  one  element  or 
relationship  seems  significant  for  the  problem,  it  is  seized  upon, 
abstracted  from  its  fellows,  and  becomes  the  center  of  the  next 
series  of  suggestions.  A  part,  element,  quahty,  or  what  not,  of 
the  situation  is  accepted  as  significant  of  it  for  the  time  being. 
The  part  stands  for  the  whole  —  this  is  characteristic  of  all 
thinking.  As  a  very  simple  illustration,  consider  the  following 
one  reported  by  Dewey : 

"Projecting  nearly  horizontally  from  the  upper  deck  of  the 
ferryboat  on  which  I  daily  cross  the  river,  is  a  long  white  pole, 
bearing  a  gilded  ball  at  its  tip.  It  suggested  a  flag  pole  when  I 
first  saw  it;  its  color,  shape,  and  gilded  ball  agreed  with  this 
idea,  and  these  reasons  seemed  to  justify  me  in  this  belief.  But 
soon  difficulties  presented  themselves.  The  pole  was  nearly 
horizontal,  an  unusual  position  for  a  flag  pole ;  in  the  next  place, 
there  was  no  pulley,  ring,  or  cord  by  which  to  attach  a  flag; 
finally,  there  were  elsewhere  two  vertical  staffs  from  which  flags 


no  HOW  TO  TEACH 

were  occasionally  flown.  It  seemed  probable  that  the  pole  was 
not  there  for  flag-flying. 

"I  then  tried  to  imagine  all  possible  purposes  of  such  a  pole, 
and  to  consider  for  which  of  these  it  was  best  suited:  (a)  Pos- 
sibly it  was  an  ornament.  But  as  all  the  ferryboats  and  even 
the  tugboats  carried  like  poles,  this  hypothesis  was  rejected. 
(b)  Possibly  it  was  the  terminal  of  a  wireless  telegraph.  But 
the  same  considerations  made  this  improbable.  Besides,  the 
more  natural  place  for  such  a  terminal  would  be  the  highest 
part  of  the  boat,  on  top  of  the  pilot  house,  (c)  Its  purpose  might 
be  to  point  out  the  direction  in  which  the  boat  is  moving. 

"In  support  of  this  conclusion,  I  discovered  that  the  pole  was 
lower  than  the  pilot  house,  so  that  the  steersman  could  easily 
see  it.  Moreover,  the  tip  was  enough  higher  than  the  base,  so 
that,  from  the  pilot's  position,  it  must  appear  to  project  far  out 
in  front  of  the  boat.  '  Moreover,  the  pilot  being  near  the  front 
of  the  boat,  he  would  need  some  such  guide  as  to  its  direction. 
Tugboats  would  also  need  poles  for  such  a  purpose.  This 
hypothesis  was  so  much  more  probable  than  the  others  that  I 
accepted  it.  I  formed  the  conclusion  that  the  pole  was  set  up 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  pilot  the  direction  in  which  the 
boat  pointed,  to  enable  him  to  steer  correctly."  ^ 

The  problem  was  to  find  out  the  use  of  the  flag  pole.  No  ade- 
quate explanation  came  as  the  problem  presented  itself ;  it  there- 
fore caused  a  state  of  uncertainty,  of  suspended  judgment,  and 
a  process  of  thinking  in  order  to  get  an  answer.  Each  sugges- 
tion that  came  was  analyzed,  its  requirements  and  possibilities 
checked  up  by  the  actual  facts  and  the  goal.  The  suggestions 
that  the  pole  was  simply  to  carry  a  flag,  was  an  ornament,  was 
the  terminal  of  a  wireless  telegraph,  were  examined  and  rejected. 
The  final  one,  that  the  pole  was  to  point  out  the  direction  in 
which  the  boat  was  moving,  upon  analysis  seemed  most  probable 
^  How  We  Think,  pp.  69-70. 


HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE   STIMULATED  iii 

and  was  accepted.  The  one  characteristic  of  the  pole,  that  it 
points  direction,  and  its  position,  need  to  be  accepted  as  the 
essential  facts  in  the  situation,  for  the  particular  problem. 
Without  control  of  the  process,  without  the  two  steps  of  analy- 
sis and  abstraction,  no  conclusion  could  have  been  reached. 

Analysis  and  abstraction  may  be  facilitated  in  three  ways. 
First,  by  attentive  piecemeal  examination.  The  total  situ- 
ation is  examined,  element  by  element,  attentively,  until  the 
element  needed  is  reached  or  approximated.  This  method  of 
procedure  helps  to  emphasize  minor  bonds  of  association  which 
the  element  possesses  in  the  learner's  experience  but  which  he 
needs  to  have  brought  to  his  attention.  It  can  only  be  used 
when  the  element  is  known  to  some  degree.  It  is  the  method 
to  use  when  elements  are  known  in  a  hazy,  incomplete,  or  in- 
definite way  and  need  clearing  up.  Second,  by  varying  the 
concomitant.  An  element  associated  with  many  situations, 
which  vary  in  other  respects,  comes  to  be  felt  and  recognized  as 
independent.  This  is  the  method  to  use  when  a  new  element 
in  a  complex  is  to  be  taught.  Third,  by  contrast.  A  new 
element  is  brought  into  consciousness  more  quickly  if  it  is  set 
side  by  side  with  its  opposite.  Of  course,  this  is  only  true  pro- 
vided the  opposite  has  already  been  learned.  To  present  op- 
posites,  both  of  which  are  new  or  only  partially  learned,  con- 
fuses the  analysis  instead  of  facilitating  it. 

Reasoning,  as  the  highest  type  of  thinking,  includes  all  that 
thinking  in  general  does,  and  adds  some  particular  requirement 
which  differentiates  it  from  the  simpler  forms.  Further  dis- 
cussion of  it,  then,  should  make  clearer  the  essential  in  think- 
ing as  a  process,  as  well  as  make  clear  its  most  difficult  form. 
Reasoning  is  defined  by  Miller  as  '^controlled  thinking, — 
thinking  organized  and  systematized  according  to  laws  and 
principles  and  carried  on  by  use  of  superior  technique."  ^  Rea- 
1  Psychology  of  Thinking,  p.  291, 


112  HOW  TO  TEACH 

soiling,  then,  is  the  kind  of  thinking  that  deals  directly  with 
laws  and  principles.  Much  thinking  may  be  carried  on  without 
any  overt,  definite  use  of  laws  and  principles,  as  in  constructive 
imagination  or  in  apperception,  but,  if  this  is  so,  it  seems  better 
to  call  the  thinking  by  one  of  the  other  names.  Of  course  this 
classification  is  somewhat  arbitrary,  but  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion that  types  of  thinking  do  differ.  As  has  already  been 
noted,  some  psychologists  have  used  the  terms  thinking  and 
reasoning  as  synonyms,  but  such  usage  has  resulted  in  con- 
fusion and  has  not  been  of  practical  value.  It  is  only  as  the 
mental  process  desired  becomes  clearly  conceived  of,  its  con- 
notations and  denotation  clearly  defined,  that  it  becomes  a 
real  goal  towards  which  a  teacher  or  learner  may  strive.  This, 
then,  is  the  primary  criterion  of  reasoning  —  that  the  thinker 
be  dealing  consciously  with  laws  and  principles.  An  accept- 
ance of  this  first  essential  makes  clear  that  the  particular 
process  of  reasoning  cannot  be  carried  on  in  subjects  which 
lack  laws  and  principles.  Spelling,  elementary  reading,  vocab- 
ulary study,  most  of  the  early  work  in  music  and  art,  the 
acquisition  of  facts  wherever  found  —  these  situations  may 
offer  opportunity  for  thinking,  but  little  if  any  for  reasoning. 
Because  a  teacher  is  using  the  development  method  does  not 
mean  necessarily  that  her  students  are  reasoning.  The  two 
terms  are  not  in  any  way  synonymous. 

The  second  essential  in. reasoning  is  the  presence  of  a  definite 
technique.  This  technique  consists  of  two  factors :  first,  cer- 
tain definite  mental  states,  and  second,  the  use  of  the  process 
of  thinking  by  either  the  inductive  or  the  deductive  method. 

First  as  to  the  mental  states  involved.  The  fact  that  the 
thinking  deals  with  laws  and  principles  necessitates  the  presence, 
in  the  thinking  process,  of  constructive  verbal  or  symbolic 
imagery,  logical  relationships,  logical  concepts,  and  explicit 
judgments.     This  does  not  at  all  exclude  other  types  of  these 


HOW  THINKING   MAY  BE  STIMULATED  113 

mental  states  and  entirely  different  mental  states.  The  kind 
of  analysis  involved  simply  necessitates  the  presence  of  these 
types,  whatever  others  may  be  present.  Constructive  sym- 
bolic imagery  has  already  been  discussed.  Logical  relationships 
are  those  that  are  independent  of  accidental  conditions,  are 
not  dependent  on  mere  contiguity  in  time  and  space,  but  are 
inherent  in  the  association  involved.  Such  relationships  are 
those  of  likeness  and  difference,  cause  and"  effect,  subject  and 
object,  equality,  concession,  and  the  like.  Logical  concepts  are 
those  which  are  the  result  of  thinking,  whose  definite  meaning 
has  been  brought  clearly  into  consciousness  so  that  a  definition 
could  be  framed.  A  child  has  some  notion  of  the  meaning  of 
tree,  or  man,  or  chemist,  and  therefore  possesses  a  concept  of 
some  kind,  but  the  exact  meaning,  the  particular  qualities  nec- 
essary, are  usually  lacking,  and  so  it  could  not  be  called  a  logical 
concept.  Explicit  judgments  are  those  which  contain  within 
themselves  the  reasons  for  the  inference.  They,  too,  are  the 
result  of  thinking.  One  may  say  that  *' cheating  is  wrong,"  or 
that  ''water  will  not  rise  above  its  source  level,"  or  that  ''clean- 
liness is  necessary  to  health,"  or  that  "this  is  a  Rembrandt" — ■ 
as  a  matter  of  experience,  habit,  but  without  any  reflection  and 
with  no  reasons  for  such  judgment.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
problems  to  which  these  judgments  are  answers  had  been  a 
matter  of  thinking,  the  reasons  or  the  ground  for  such  judgment 
would  have  become  conscious  and  the  judgment  then  become 
explicit.  It  must  be  evident  that  in  any  problems  dealing  with 
laws  and  principles  the  mental  states  involved  must  be  definite, 
clear  cut,  logically  sound,  and  their  implications  thoroughly 
appreciated  and  understood. 

The  second  element  in  the  technique  necessary  in  reasoning  is 
the  use  of  either  the  inductive  or  the  deductive  method  in  the 
process.  Induction  requires  —  a  problem,  search  for  facts  with 
which  to  solve  it,  comparison  and  analysis  of  those  facts,  ab- 


114  HOW  TO  TEACH 

straction  of  the  essential  likenesses,  and  conclusion.  Deduction 
requires  —  a  problem,  the  analysis  of  the  situation  and  ab- 
straction of  its  essential  elements,  search  for  generals  under  which 
to  classify  it,  comparison  of  it  with  each  general  found,  and 
conclusion.  It  is  unfortunate  that  in  the  discussions  of  induc- 
tion and  deduction  the  differences  have  been  so  emphasized  that 
they  have  been  regarded  as  different  processes,  whereas  the 
likenesses  far  outweigh  the  differences.  An  examination  of  the 
requirements  of  each  as  stated  above  shows  that  the  process  in 
the  two  is  the  same.  Not  only  do  both  involve  reasoning,  and 
therefore  require  the  major  steps  of  analysis  and  abstraction 
present  in  all  thinking,  but  both  also  involve  search  and  com- 
parison. Both,  of  course,  involve  the  same  kind  of  mental 
states.  At  times  it  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
them.  Although  for  practical  purposes  it  is  necessary,  some- 
times, to  stress  the  differences,  the  inherent  similarity  should 
not  be  lost  sight  of. 

The  differences  between  these  two  methods  of  reasoning  are, 
first,  in  the  locus  of  the  problem;  second,  in  the  order  of  the 
steps  of  the  process;  third,  in  the  relative  proportion  of  par- 
ticulars and  generals  used;  fourth,  in  the  devices  used,  (i)  In 
induction  the  problem  is  concerned  with  a  general.  In  some 
situation  a  concept,  law,  or  principle  .has  proven  inadequate  as 
a  response.  The  question  is  then  raised  as  to  what  is  wrong 
with  it  and  the  inductive  process  is  instigated.  The  problem  is 
solved  when  the  principle  or  concept  is  perfected  or  enlarged  — 
in  other  words,  is  made  adequate.  In  deduction  the  problem 
is  concerned  with  the  individual  situation.  Some  problem  is 
raised  by  a  particular  fact  or  experience  and  is  answered  when 
it  is  placed  under  the  law  or  concept  to  which  it  belongs.  De- 
duction is  practically  the  classification  of  particulars.  (2)  The 
order  of  steps  is  different.  In  induction,  because  present  knowl- 
edge falls  short,  the  major  step  of  analysis  necessary  to  abstrac- 


HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE   STIMULATED  115 

tion  of  the  essential  is  impossible,  and  therefore  the  search  for 
new  facts  must  come  first,  whereas  in  deduction,  the  analy- 
sis of  the  particular  situation  results  in  a  search  for  generals  and 
a  classification  of  the  situation  in  question.  (3)  In  induction 
many  particular  facts  may  be  necessary  before  one  concept  or 
principle  is  made  adequate,  while  in  deduction  many  concepts 
or  principles  may  be  examined  before  one  particular  is  classified. 
(4)  In  induction  the  hypothesis  is  used  as  a  device  to  make  clear 
the  possible  goal ;  in  deduction  the  syllogism  is  used  as  a  device 
to  make  clear  the  conclusion  which  has  been  reached,  to  throw 
into  relief  the  classification  and  the  result  coming  from  it. 

In  this  discussion,  induction  and  deduction  have  been  treated, 
for  the  sake  of  clearness,  as  if  they  acted  independently  of  each 
other,  as  if  a  thinker  might  at  one  time  use  deduction  and  at 
another  time  induction.  They  have  been  outlined  in  such  a 
way  that  one  might  think  that  the  movement  of  the  mind  in 
one  process  was  such  that  it  precluded  the  possibility  of  the 
other  process.  This  is  not  so  —  the  two  are  inextricably  mingled 
in  the  actual  process  of  reasoning,  and  further,  induction  as  used 
in  practical  life  always  involves  deduction  at  two  points,  as 
an  initial  starting  point  and  as  an  end  point.  The  knowledge 
that  a  certain  principle  is  inadequate  comes  to  consciousness 
through  the  attempt  to  classify  some  particular  experience 
under  it.  Failure  results  and  the  inductive  process  may  then 
be  initiated,  but  this  initial  attempt  is  deductive  and  if  it  had 
been  successful  there  would  have  been  no  need  of  induction. 
After  the  inductive  process  is  complete  and  the  general  principle 
has  been  classified  or  perfected,  the  final  step  is  testing  it  to  see 
if  it  is  adequate,  first  by  applying  it  to  the  particular  problem 
which  caused  the  whole  process,  and  then  to  new  situations.  If 
it  tests,  it  is  accepted,  —  if  not,  further  induction  is  necessary. 
This  again  is  deduction.  Not  only  is  induction  not  complete 
without  deduction,  but  each  deduction  influences  the  principle 


li6  HOW  TO  TEACH 

which  is  appHed,  making  it  more  sure  and  more  flexible.  Even 
in  the  process  of  induction,  there  are  attempts  to  classify  these 
facts  which  are  being  gathered  under  suggested  old  principles, 
or  half -formed  new  ones,  before  the  process  is  completed.  This 
is  a  deductive  movement,  even  though  it  prove  unsatisfactory 
or  impossible.  Dewey  describes  this  interaction  by  saying, 
^' There  is  thus  a  double  movement  in  all  reflection:  a  move- 
ment from  the  given  partial  and  confused  data  to  a  suggested 
comprehension  (or  inclusive)  entire  situation;  and  back  from 
this  suggested  whole  —  which  as  suggested  is  a  meaning,  an 
idea  —  to  the  particular  facts,  so  as  to  connect  these  with  one 
another  and  with  additional  facts  to  which  the  suggestion  has 
directed  attention."  ^  However  true  this  intermingling  of 
induction  and  deduction  may  be,  the  fact  still  remains  true 
that  in  any  given  case  the  major  movement  is  in  one  direction  or 
the  other,  and  that  therefore  in  order  to  insure  effective  thinking 
measures  must  be  taken  accordingly.  As  a  child  formulates 
his  conception  of  a  verb,  or  words  the  characteristic  essentials 
of  the  lily-family,  or  frames  the  rule  for  addition  of  fractions 
or  the  action  of  a  base  on  a  metal,  he  is  concerned  primarily 
with  the  form  of  the  reasoning  process  known  as  induction. 
When  he  classes  a  certain  word  as  a  conjunction,  a  certain  city 
as  a  trade  center,  a  certain  problem  as  one  in  percentage,  he  is 
using  deduction.  Complexes  and  gradual  shadings  of  one  state 
into  another,  not  clearly  defined  and  sharply  differentiated  pro- 
cesses and  states,  are  characteristic  of  all  mental  life. 

Another  unfortunate  statement  with  regard  to  induction  and 
deduction  is  that  the  former  ''proceeds  from  particulars  to 
generals"  and  the  latter  from  ''generals  to  particulars."  Both 
of  these  statements  omit  the  starting  point  and  leave  the  thinker 
with  no  ground  for  either  the  particulars  or  the  generals  with 
which  he  works.  The  thinker  is  supposed,  let  us  say,  to 
1  How  We  Think,  p.  79. 


HOW  THINKING   MAY  BE  STIMULATED  117 

collect  specimens  of  flowers  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  notion  of 
the  characteristics  of  a  certain  class  —  but  why  collect  these 
rather  than  any  others?  True,  in  the  artificial  situation  of  a 
schoolroom  or  college,  the  learner  often  collects  in  a  certain 
field  rather  than  another,  simply  because  he  is  told  to.  But  in 
daily  life  he  would  not  be  told  to  —  the  incentive  must  come 
from  some  particular  situation  which  presents  a  problem  and 
therefore  limits  the  field  of  search.  The  starting  point  must  be 
a  particular  experience  or  situation.  The  same  thing  is  true  in 
deduction,  although  the  syllogistic  form  has  often  been  mislead- 
ing. *' Metals  are  hard ;  iron  is  a  metal,  therefore  iron  is  hard." 
But  why  talk  about  metals  at  all  —  and  if  so  why  hardness 
rather  than  color  or  effect  on  bases  or  some  other  characteristic  ? 
Of  course,  here  again  it  is  some  particular  problem  that  defines 
the  search  for  the  general  and  directs  attention  to  some  class 
characteristics  rather  than  to  others.  Not  only  is  the  starting 
point  of  all  reasoning  some  definite  situation  for  which  there 
is  no  adequate  response,  but  the  end  point  must  naturally  be 
the  same.  A  particular  problem  demanding  solution  is  the 
cause  for  reasoning,  and,  of  course,  the  end  of  the  process  must 
be  the  solution  of  that  problem. 

From  the  foregoing  it  must  not  be  concluded  that  the  pro- 
cesses of  induction  and  deduction  are  manifested  only  in  con- 
nection with  reasoning.  In  fact,  their  use  as  a  conscious  tool 
of  technique  in  reasoning  comes  only  after  considerable  ex- 
perience of  their  use  when  there  was  no  conscious  purpose  and 
no  control.  A  little  child's  notion  of  dog,  or  tree,  or  city  — 
in  fact,  all  his  psychological  concepts  necessitate  the  inductive 
movement,  but  it  has  taken  place  in  his  spontaneous  thinking 
and  the  meanings  have  evolved  after  considerable  experience 
without  any  definite  control  on  his  part.  So  with  deduction. 
As  he  recognizes  this  as  a  chestnut  tree,  that  as  a  rocking  chair, 
as  he  decides  that  this  is  wrong  or  that  it  is  going  to  clear,  he 


Ii8  HOW  TO  TEACH 

is  classifying  things,  or  conduct,  or  conditions,  and  so  is  following 
the  deductive  movement.  But  the  judgments  may  come  as  a 
result  of  past  experience,  may  be  spontaneous  and  involve  no 
protracted  controlled  activity  which  has  been  defined  as  think- 
ing. Man's  mind  works  spontaneously  both  inductively  and 
deductively,  and  hence  the  possibility  of  control  of  these  oper- 
ations later.  Thinking  is  an  outgrowth  of  spontaneous  activity ; 
reasoning  is  but  an  application  of  the  natural  laws  of  mental 
activity  to  certain  situations. 

The  laws  of  readiness,  exercise,  and  effect  govern  thinking  just 
as  they  do  all  other  mental  processes.  Thinking  is  not  independ- 
ent of  habit ;  it  is  not  a  mysterious  force  other  than  association 
which  deals  with  novel  data.  Thinking  is  merely  an  exhibition 
of  the  laws  of  habit  under  certain  definite  situations.  At  first 
sight  this  seems  to  be  impossible,  because,  as  has  been  emphasized 
throughout  this  chapter,  thinking  takes  place  when  no  satisfactory 
response  is  at  hand  and  when  nothing  is  offered  by  past  experi- 
ence which  is  adequate.  As  a  result  of  the  thinking,  responses 
are  reached  which  never  before  have  occurred  as  a  result  of  that 
situation.  Just  the  same  they  are  reached  only  because  of  the 
operation  of  the  laws  of  habit.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  laws  of  association  do  not  work  in  such  a  way  that  only 
gross  total  situations  are  bound  to  total  responses.  In  man 
particularly,  situations  are  being  continually  broken  up  into 
elements,  and  those  elements  connected  with  responses.  Re- 
sponses are  being  continually  disintegrated,  and  elements,  instead 
of  the  whole  response,  being  bound  to  situations.  Analysis  is 
continually  taking  place  merely  as  a  result  of  the  working  of 
these  laws.  If  the  nervous  mechanism  of  man  were  not  of  this 
hair-trigger  variety,  if  elements  did  not  emerge  from  a  total 
complex  as  a  result  of  bonds  formed,  of  readiness  of  certain 
tracts,  no  wilUng,  no  attention  on  the  part  of  the  thinker,  would 
ever  bring  about  analysis.     This  is  made  very  vivid  when  one  is 


HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE  STIMULATED  119 

met  by  a  problem  he  cannot  solve.  If  the  situation  does  not 
break  up,  if  the  right  element  does  not  emerge,  if  the  right  cue 
is  not  given,  he  is  helpless.  All  he  can  do  is  to  hold  fast  to  his 
problem  and  wait.  As  the  associations  are  offered,  he  can 
select  and  reject,  but  that  is  all.  The  marvelous  power  of  the 
genius,  the  inventor,  the  reasoner  in  all  fields,  is  merely  an  ex- 
hibition of  the  laws  of  association  working  with  extremely  subtle 
elements.  It  seems  to  transcend  all  experience  because  these 
elements  and  the  bonds  which  experience  has  formed  cannot  be 
observed.  A  child  fails  in  his  thinking  often  because  he  uses 
his  past  experience  and  responds  by  analogy  —  we  note  that 
fact  and  criticize  him  for  it.  But  he  succeeds  for  just  the  same 
reason  and  by  the  use  of  just  the  same  laws.  James  long  ago 
showed  conclusively  that  association  by  similarity,  which  is 
one  of  the  prominent  types  used  in  reasoning,  was  only  the  law 
of  habit  working  with  elements  of  novel  data. 

The  fact  that  thinking  is  determined  by  its  aim  rather  than 
by  its  antecedents  has  also  been  given  a  mysterious  place  as 
apart  from  association.  The  thinker  who  chose  the  right  as- 
sociate, the  one  that  led  him  towards  his  goal  rather  than  some 
other,  was  called  sagacious.  But,  after  all,  this  being  governed 
by  an  aim  is  nothing  more  than  the  operation  of  the  law  of  read- 
iness among  intellectual  bonds.  One  associate  is  chosen  and 
another  rejected  because  one  is  more  satisfying  than  another. 
Certain  bonds  are  made  more  ready  than  others  because  of  the 
general  set  or  attitude  of  the  thinker,  and  therefore  any  associ- 
ate using  those  bonds  brings  satisfaction  and  is  retained.  "The 
power  that  moves  the  man  of  science  to  solve  problems  correctly 
is  the  same  that  moves  him  to  eat,  sleep,  rest,  and  play.  The 
efficient  thinker  is  not  only  more  fertile  in  ideas  and  more  often 
productive  of  the  'right'  ideas  than  the  incompetent  is;  he  is 
also  more  satisfied  by  them  when  he  gets  them,  and  more  re- 
bellious against  the  futile  and  misleading  ones.     We  trust  to 


I20  HOW  TO  TEACH 

the  laws  of  cerebral  nature  to  present  us  spontaneously  with  the 
appropriate  idea,  and  also  to  prefer  that  idea  to  others ^  ^ 

The  reasons  for  failure  of  teachers  and  educators  of  all  kinds 
to  train  people  to  think  are  numerous,  (i)  Scarcity  of  brains 
which  work  primarily  in  terms  of  connections  between  subtle 
elements,  relationships,  etc.  (2)  Lack  of  knowledge  or  incor- 
rect knowledge,   due   to  narrow  experience  or  poor  memory. 

(3)  Lack  of  the  necessary  habits  of  attention  and    criticism. 

(4)  Lack  of  power  of  the  more  abstract  and  intellectual  opera- 
tions to  bring  satisfaction,  due  partly  to  original  equipment  and 
partly  to  training.  (5)  Lack  of  power  to  do  independent  work, 
due  to  poor  training.  Schools  cannot  in  any  way  make  good 
the  deficiency  which  is  due  to  a  lack  of  mental  capacity.  They 
can,  and  should,  do  something  to  provide  knowledge  which  is 
well  organized  around  experiences  which  have  proved  vital  to 
pupils.  Something  can  undoubtedly  be  done  in  the  way  of  cul- 
tivating the  habit  of  concentration  of  attention,  and  of  making 
more  or  less  habitual  the  critical  attitude.  Within  the  range 
of  the  ability  which  the  individuals  to  be  educated  possess,  the 
school  may  do  much  to  give  training  which  will  make  independ- 
ent work  or  thinking  more  common  in  the  experience  of  school 
pupils,  and  therefore  much  more  apt  to  be  resorted  to  in  the 
case  of  any  problematic  situation. 

Possibly  the  greatest  weakness  in  our  schools,  as  they  are  at 
present  constituted,  is  in  the  dependence  of  both  teachers  and 
children  upon  text-books,  laboratory  manuals,  lectures,  and  the 
like.  In  almost  every  field  of  knowledge  which  is  presented  in 
our  elementary  and  high  schools,  more  opportunity  should  be 
given  for  contact  with  life  activities.  Such  contacts  should,  in 
so  far  as  it  is  possible,  involve  the  organization  of  the  observations 
which  are  made  with  relation  to  problems  and  principles  which 
the  subject  seeks  to  develop.  In  nature  study  or  in  geography 
1  Thomdike,  Educational  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  p.  172. 


HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE   STIMULATED  121 

in  the  elementary  school  many  of  the  principles  involved  are 
never  really  mastered  by  children,  by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  they 
merely  memorize  the  words  which  are  involved,  rather  than 
solve  any  of  the  problems  which  may  occur,  either  by  virtue  of 
their  intellectual  interests,  or  on  account  of  their  meaning  in 
everyday  Hfe.  The  following  of  the  instructions  given  in  the 
laboratory  manual  does  not  necessarily  result  in  developing 
the  spirit  of  inquiry  or  investigation,  nor  even  acquaint 
pupils  with  the  method  of  the  science  which  is  supposed  to  be 
studied. 

Possibly  the  greatest  contribution  which  a  teacher  can  make 
to  the  development  of  thinking  upon  the  part  of  children  is  in 
discovering  to  them  problems  which  challenge  their  attention, 
the  solution  of  which  for  them  is  worth  while.  As  has  already 
been  indicated,  an  essential  element  in  thinking  is  constantly  to 
select  from  among  the  many  associations  which  may  be  avail- 
able that  one  which  will  contribute  to  the  particular  problem 
which  we  have  in  mind.  The  mere  grouping  of  ideas  round 
some  topic  does  not  satisfy  this  requirement,  for  such  a  recit- 
ing of  paragraphs  or  chapters  may  amount  simply  to  memo- 
rization and  nothing  more.  If  a  teacher  can  in  geography  or  in 
history  send  children  to  their  books  to  find  such  facts  as  are  avail- 
able for  the  solution  of  a  particular  problem,  she  is  stimulating 
thought  upon  their  part,  and  may  at  the  same  time  be  giving 
them  some  command  of  the  technique  of  inquiry  or  of  investi- 
gation. The  class  that  starts  to  work,  either  in  the  discussion 
during  the  recitation  period,  or  when  they  work  at  their  seats, 
or  at  home,  with  a  clear  statement  of  the  aim  or  problem  may 
be  expected  to  do  much  more  in  the  way  of  thinking  than  will 
occur  in  the  experience  of  those  who  are  merely  told  to  read  cer- 
tain parts  of  a  book.  In  a  well-conducted  recitation  which  in- 
volves thinking,  the  aim  needs  to  be  restated  a  number  of  times 
in  order  that  the  selection  of  those  associations  which  are  impor- 


122  HOW  TO  TEACH 

tant,  and  the  rejection  of  those  which  are  not  pertinent,  may 
continue  over  a  considerable  period. 

In  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  children  should  be  made  to  feel 
responsibility  for  the  progress  which  is  made  in  the  solution  of 
their  problems.  They  should  be  critical  of  the  contributions 
made  by  each  other.  They  should  be  sincere  in  their  expres- 
sion of  doubt,  arid  in  questioning  whenever  they  do  not  under- 
stand. Above  all,  if  they  are  really  thinking,  they  need  to  have 
an  opportunity  for  free  discussion.  In  classrooms  in  which  chil- 
dren are  seated  in  rows  looking  at  the  backs  of  each  other's 
heads  and  reciting  to  the  teacher,  the  tendency  is  simply  to 
satisfy  what  the  pupils  conceive  to  be  the  demands  of  the  teacher, 
rather  than  to  think  and  to  attempt  to  resolve  one's  doubts. 
In  classes  in  which  teachers  provide  not  only  for  a  statement  of 
the  problem  which  is  to  be  solved  during  the  study  period,  but 
also  for  a  variety  in  assignments,  children  may  be  expected  to 
bring  to  class  differences  in  points  of  view  and  in  the  data  which 
they  have  collected.  In  such  a  situation  discussion  is  a  perfectly 
normal  process,  and  thinking  is  stimulated. 

As  children  pass  through  the  several  grades  of  the  school 
system,  they  ought  to  become  increasingly  conscious  of  the 
process  of  reasoning.  They  should  be  asked  to  tell  how  they 
have  arrived  at  their  conclusions.  They  should  give  the  reason 
for  their  judgments.  A  great  deal  of  loose  thinking  would  be 
avoided  if  we  could  in  some  measure  establish  the  habit  upon 
the  part  of  boys  and  girls  of  asking,  "  Will  it  work  in  all  cases  ?  "  ; 
''What  was  assumed  as  a  basis  for  arriving  at  the  conclusion 
which  I  have  accepted?";  ''Are  the  data  which  have  been 
brought  together  adequate?"  ;  "To  what  degree  have  the  falla- 
cies which  are  more  or  less  common  in  reasoning  entered  into  my 
thinking?"  It  is  not  that  one  would  hope  to  give  a  course  in 
logic  to  elementary  or  to  high  school  children,  but  rather  that 
they  should  learn,  out  of  the  situations  which  demand  thought, 


HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE   STIMULATED  123 

constantly  to  check  up  their  conclusions  and  to  verify  them  in 
every  possible  way.  We  may  not  expect  by  this  method  to 
create  any  unusual  power  of  thought,  but  we  may  in  some  de- 
gree provide  for  the  development  of  a  critical  attitude  wh^ch  will 
enable  these  same  boys  and  girls,  both  now  and  as  they  grow 
older,  to  discriminate  between  those  who  merely  dogmatize,  and 
those  who  present  a  sound  basis  for  their  reasoning,  either  in 
terms  of  a  principle  which  can  be  accepted,  or  in  terms  of  obser- 
vations or  experiments  which  estabhsh  the  conclusions  which 
they  are  asked  to  accept. 

In  all  of  the  work  which  involves  thinking,  it  is  of  the  ut- 
most importance  that  we  preserve  upon  the  part  of  pupils,  in 
so  far  as  it  is  possible,  an  open-minded  attitude.  It  is  well  to 
have  children  in  the  habit  of  saying  with  respect  to  their  con- 
clusions that  in  so  far  as  they  have  the  evidence,  this  or  that 
conclusion  seems  to  be  justified.  It  may  even  be  well  to  have 
them  reach  the  conclusion  in  some  parts  of  their  work  that  there 
are  not  sufficient  data  available  upon  which  to  base  a  general- 
ization, or  that  certain  principles  which  are  accepted  as  valid 
by  some  thinkers  are  questioned  by  others,  and  that  the  conclu- 
sions which  are  based  upon  principles  which  are  not  commonly 
accepted  must  always  be  stated  by  saying :  it  follows,  if  you 
accept  a  particular  principle,  that  this  particular  conclusion  will 
hold. 

We  need  more  and  more  to  encourage  the  habit  of  independent 
work.  We  must  hope  as  children  pass  through  our  school  sys- 
tem that  they  will  grow  more  and  more  independent  in  their 
statement  of  conclusions  and  of  beliefs.  We  can  never  expect 
that  boys  and  girls,  or  men  and  women,  will  reach  conclusions 
on  all  of  the  questions  which  are  of  importance  to  them,  but  it 
ought  to  be  possible,  especially  for  those  of  more  than  usual 
capacity,  to  distinguish  between  the  conclusions  of  a  scientific 
investigation  and  the  statements  of  a  demagogue.     The  use  of 


124  HOW  TO  TEACH 

whatever  capacity  for  independent  thought  which  children  pos- 
sess should  result  in  the  development  of  a  group  of  open-minded, 
inquiring,  investigating  boys  and  girls,  eager  and  willing  in  con- 
fronting their  common  community  problems  to  do  their  own 
thinking,  or  to  be  guided  by  those  who  present  conclusions 
which  are  recognized  as  valid.  They  should  learn  to  act  in 
accordance  with  well-established  conclusions,  even  though  they 
may  have  to  break  with  the  traditions  or  superstitions  which 
have  operated  to  interfere  with  the  development  of  the  social 
welfare  of  the  group  with  which  they  are  associated. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  children  (and  adults)  most  frequently  solve  their  problems? 

2.  Under  what  conditions  do  children  think  and  yet  reach  wrong  con- 
clusions?    Give  examples. 

3.  Can  first-grade  children  think?  Give  examples  which  prove  your 
contention. 

4.  What  are  the  important  elements  to  be  found  in  all  thinking? 

5.  Show  how  these  elements  may  be  involved  in  a  first-grade  lesson 
in  nature  study.  In  an  eighth-grade  lesson  in  geography.  In  the  teaching 
of  any  high  school  subject. 

6.  When  may  habit  formation  involve  thinking?     Memorization? 

7.  Give  five  examples  of  problems  which  you  believe  wiU  challenge 
the  brightest  pupils  in  your  class.  Which  would  seem  real  and  worth 
solving  to  the  duller  members  of  the  group  ? 

8.  How  may  the  analysis  of  such  ideas  as  come  to  mind,  and  the  ab- 
straction of  the  part  which  is  valuable  for  the  solution  of  a  particular  prob- 
lem, be  facilitated  ? 

9.  How  do  you  distinguish  between  thinking  and  reasoning  ? 

10.  What  are  the  essential  elements  in  reasoning?  Give  an  example 
of  reasoning  as  carried  on  by  one  solving  a  problem  in  arithmetic  or  geometry, 
in  geography,  physics,  or  chemistry. 

11.  In  what  respects  are  the  processes  of  induction  and  deduction  alike? 
In  what  do  they  differ  ? 

12.  At  what  stage  of  the  inductive  process  is  deduction  involved? 

13.  Give  examples  of  reasoning  demanded  in  school  work  in  which  the 
process  is  predominantly  inductive.    Deductive, 


HOW  THINKING  MAY  BE  STIMULATED  125 

14.  Why  are  the  statements  "Induction  proceeds  from  particulars  to 
generals"  and  ''Deduction  from  generals  to  particulars"  inadequate  to 
describe  either  process  ? 

15.  In  what  sense  is  thinking  dependent  upon  the  operation  of  the  laws 
of  habit? 

16.  To  what  degree  is  it  possible  to  teach  your  pupils  to  think  ?  Under 
what  limitations  do  you  work  ? 


VIII 

APPRECIATION,  AN   IMPORTANT   ELEMENT   IN 
EDUCATION 

Appreciation  belongs  to  the  general  field  of  feeling  rather 
than  that  of  knowing.  The  element  which  distinguishes  appre- 
ciation from  memory  or  imagination  or  perception  is  an  affective 
one.  Any  one  of  these  mental  states  may  be  present  without 
the  state  being  an  appreciative  one.  But  appreciation  does 
not  occur  by  itself  as  an  elementary  state,  it  is  rather  a  complex 
—  a  feeling  tone  accompanying  a  mental  state  or  process  and 
coloring  it.  In  other  words,  appreciation  involves  the  presence 
of  some  intellectual  states,  but  its  addition  makes  the  total 
complex  of  an  emotional  rather  than  a  cognitive  nature.  The 
difficulty  found  in  discussing  emotions  in  general,  that  of  defin- 
ing or  describing  them  in  language,  which  is  a  tool  of  the  intellect, 
is  felt  here.  The  only  way  to  know  what  appreciation  means 
is  to  appreciate.  No  phase  of  feeling  can  be  adequately  de- 
scribed —  its  essence  is  then  lost  —  it  must  be  felt.  Neverthe- 
less something  may  be  done  to  differentiate  this  type  of  feeling 
from  others. 

Appreciation  is  an  attitude  of  mind  which  is  passive,  con- 
templative. It  may  grow  out  of  an  active  attitude  or  emotion, 
or  it  may  lead  to  one,  but  in  either  case  the  state  changes  from 
one  of  appreciation  to  something  else.  In  appreciation  the 
individual  is  quiescent.  Appreciation,  therefore,  has  no  end 
outside  of  itself.  It  is  a  sufficient  cause  for  being.  The  in- 
dividual is  satisfied  with  it.     This  puts  appreciation  into  the 

126 


AN  IMPORTANT  ELEMENT  IN  EDUCATION  127 

category  of  recreation.  Appreciation  then  always  involves 
the  pleasure  tone,  otherwise  it  could  not  be  enjoyed.  It  is 
always  impersonal.  It  takes  the  individual  outside  and  beyond 
his  own  affairs;  it  is  an  other-regarding  feeling.  Possession, 
achievement,  and  the  like  do  not  arouse  appreciation,  but  rather 
an  egoistical  emotion. 

One  of  the  salient  characteristics  of  emotions  is  their  unify- 
ing power.  It  has  aptly  been  said  that  in  extreme  emotional 
states  one  is  the  emotion.  The  individual  and  his  emotional 
state  become  one  —  a  very  different  state  of  affairs  from  what 
is  true  in  cognition.  This  element  of  unification  is  present  to 
some  extent  in  appreciation,  although,  because  of  its  complex 
nature,  to  a  lesser  extent  than  in  a  simpler,  more  primitive  feel- 
ing state.  Still,  in  true  appreciation  one  does  become  absorbed 
in  the  object  of  appreciation;  he,  for  the  time  being,  to  some 
extent  becomes  identified  with  what  he  is  appreciating.  In 
order  to  appreciate  this  submerging  of  one's  self,  this  identifica- 
tion is  necessary. 

Appreciation  is  bound  up  with  four  different  types  of  situa- 
tions which  are  of  most  importance  to  the  teacher  —  (i)  appre- 
ciation of  the  beautiful,  (2)  appreciation  of  human  nature,  (3) 
appreciation  of  the  humorous,  (4)  appreciation  of  intellectual 
powers.  The  appreciation  found  in  these  four  types  of  situa- 
tions must  vary  somewhat  because  of  the  concomitants,  but  the 
characteristics  which  mark  appreciation  as  such  seem  to  be 
present  in  all  four.  True,  in  certain  of  the  situations  occurring 
under  these  types  the  emotional  element  may  be  stronger  than 
in  others  —  in  some  the  intellectual  element  may  seem  to  almost 
outweigh  the  affective,  but  still  the  predominant  characteristics 
will  be  found  to  be  those  of  an  attitude  which  has  the  earmarks 
of  appreciation. 

Appreciation  of  beauty  has  usually  been  discussed  under  the 
head  of  aesthetic  emotions.     As  to  what  rightfully  belongs  under 


128  HOW  TO  TEACH 

the  head  of  aesthetics  is  in  dispute  —  writers  on  the  subject 
varying  tremendously  in  their  opinions.  Most  of  the  recent 
writers,  however,  agree  that  the  stimulus  for  aesthetic  appre- 
ciation must  be  a  sense  percept  or  an  image  of  some  sense  ob- 
ject. Ideas,  meanings,  in  and  of  themselves,  are  not  then  ob- 
jects of  aesthetic  enjoyment.  The  two  senses  which  furnish 
the  stimuli  for  this  sort  of  appreciation  are  the  eye  and  the  ear  — 
the  former  combining  sensations  under  space  form  and  the  latter 
under  time  form  to  produce  aesthetic  feelings.  Our  senses  may 
cause  feelings  of  pleasure,  but  the  enjoyment  is  sensuous  rather 
than  aesthetic.  Nature,  in  all  its  myriad  forms,  art,  archi- 
tecture, music,  literature,  and  the  dance  are  the  chief  sources 
of  aesthetic  appreciation.  That  there  is  a  definite  connection 
between  physiological  processes  and  the  feeling  of  appreciation 
is  without  doubt  true,  but  just  what  physiological  conditions 
in  connection  with  visual  and  auditory  perception  are  fulfilled 
when  some  experience  gives  rise  to  aesthetic  appreciation,  and 
just  what  is  violated  when  there  is  lack  of  such  appreciation,  is  not 
known.  It  is  known  that  both  harmony  and  rhythm  must 
be  considered  in  music,  and  that  the  structure  and  muscular 
control  of  the  eye  plus  the  ease  of  mental  apprehension  play 
important  parts  in  rousing  aesthetic  feelings  in  connection  with 
vision,  but  further  than  that  little  is  known. 

The  chief  danger  met  in  developing  the  aesthetic  appreciation 
is  the  tendency  to  overestimate  its  dependence  on,  in  the  first 
place,  skill  in  creative  work  and  the  active  emotions  involved 
in  achievement,  and  in  the  second  place,  the  intellectual  under- 
standing of  the  situation.  It  has  been  largely  taken  for  granted 
that  the  constructive  work  in  the  arts  or  in  music  increased 
one's  power  of  appreciation.  That,  if  a  child  used  color  and 
painted  a  little  picture,  or  composed  a  melody,  or  modeled  in 
clay,  he  would  therefore  be  able  to  appreciate  better  in  these 
fields.     And  further  that  the  very  development  of  this  power 


AN  IMPORTANT  ELEMENT  IN  EDUCATION  129 

to  do  necessarily  developed  the  power  to  appreciate.  These 
two  beliefs  are  true  to  some  extent,  but  only  to  a  limited  extent, 
and  not  nearly  so  far  as  practice  has  taken  for  granted.  It  is 
true  that  some  power  to  do  increases  power  to  appreciate,  but 
they  parallel  each  other  only  for  a  short  time  and  then  diverge, 
and  either  may  be  developed  at  the  expense  of  the  other.  In 
most  people  the  power  to  appreciate,  the  passive,  contemplative 
enjoyment,  far  surpasses  the  ability  to  create.  On  the  other 
hand,  men  of  creative  genius  often  lack  power  of  aesthetic  appre- 
ciation. This  result  is  natural  if  one  thinks  of  the  mental  pro- 
cesses involved  in  the  two.  Power  to  do  is  associated  with 
muscular  skill,  with  technique,  and  with  the  personal  emotions 
of  active  achievement.  Esthetic  appreciation,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  associated  with  neither,  but  with  a  mental  attitude  and 
feelings  which  are  quite  different.  Cultivating  one  set  of  pro- 
cesses will  not  develop  the  other  to  any  great  extent  and  may, 
on  the  other  hand,  be  antagonistic  to  their  development.  If  the 
aesthetic  emotions,  if  appreciations  of  the  beautiful,  are  desired, 
they  must  be  trained  and  developed  directly. 

The  second  danger  to  be  avoided  in  developing  aesthetic 
appreciation  is  that  of  magnifying  its  dependence  on  the  intel- 
lectual factors.  To  understand,  to  be  able  to  analyze,  to  pick 
out  the  flaws  in  a  musical  selection,  or  a  painting,  is  not  necessary 
to  its  appreciation.  True,  some  understanding  is  necessary, 
but,  as  in  the  case  of  skill,  it  is  much  less  than  has  been  taken 
for  granted.  Appreciation  can  go  far  ahead  of  understanding. 
The  intellectual  factor  and  the  feeling  response  are  not  abso- 
lutely interdependent  in  degree.  Not  only  so,  but  the  promi- 
nence of  the  intellectual  factor  precludes  that  of  the  feeling. 
When  one  is  emphasized  the  other  cannot  be,  as  they  are  different 
sorts  of  mental  stuff.  Continuous  and  emphatic  development 
of  the  intellectual  may  result  in  the  atrophy  of  the  power  of 
appreciation  in  any  given   field  either   temporarily  or  perma- 


I30  HOW  TO  TEACH 

nently.  Many  a  boy's  power  to  enjoy  the  rhythm  and  melody 
of  poetry  has  been  destroyed  by  the  overemphasis  of  the  critical 
faculty  during  his  high  school  course.  The  fact  that  a  person 
can  analyze  the  painting,  point  out  the  plans  in  its  composition, 
and  so  on,  does  not  at  all  mean  that  he  can  aesthetically  appre- 
ciate. Contemplative  enjoyment  may  be  impossible  for  him 
—  it  bores  him.  Botanists  are  not  noted  for  their  power  of 
aesthetic  appreciation.  It  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  some 
art  and  music  critics  have  lost  their  power  of  appreciation  of  the 
things  they  are  continually  criticizing.  This  discussion  is  not 
intended  to  minimize  the  value  of  creative  skill,  or  of  power  of 
intellectual  criticism.  Both  are  talents  that  are  well  worth 
while  cultivating.  But  it  is  necessary  for  one  to  decide  which 
of  the  three,  aesthetic  appreciation,  creative  skill,  or  intellectual 
criticism,  in  the  fields  of  art,  nature,  and  music,  is  most  worth 
while  for  the  majority  of  people  and  then  make  plans  accord- 
ingly. No  one  of  the  three  can  be  best  developed  and  brought 
to  its  highest  perfection  by  emphasizing  any  one  of  the  others. 
v(  The  second  type  of  appreciation  is  appreciation  of  human 
nature :  appreciation  of  the  value  of  human  life,  appreciation 
of  its  virtues  and  trials,  appreciation  of  great  characters,  and 
so  on.  Some  writers  would  probably  class  this  type  of  appre- 
ciation under  moral  feelings  —  but  moral  feelings  usually  are 
thought  of  as  active,  as  accompaniments  of  conduct,  whereas 
these  appreciations  are  feelings  aroused  in  the  onlooker  —  they 
are  passive  and  for  the  time  being  are  an  end  in  themselves. 
These  feelings  are  stimulated  by  such  studies  as  literature  and 
history  particularly.  Geography  and  civics  offer  some  oppor- 
tunity for  their  development,  and,  of  course,  contact  with  people 
is  the  greatest  stimulus.  In  this  latter  type  of  situation  the 
feelings  of  appreciation  easily  pass  over  into  active  emotions, 
but  so  long  as  one  remains  an  onlooker,  they  need  not  do  so. 
This  appreciation,  sympathy  with  and  enjoyment  and  approval 


AN  IMPORTANT  ELEMENT  IN  EDUCATION  131 

of  human  nature,  finds  its  source  in  the  social  instincts,  but  it 
needs  development  and  training  if  it  is  to  be  perfected.  Very- 
much  of  the  time  this  appreciation  is  inhibited  by  the  emphasis 
put  on  understanding.  The  intellectual  faculties  of  memory, 
judgment,  and  criticism  are  the  ones  called  into  play  in  the  study 
of  history  and  often  of  literature.  These  studies  leave  the 
learner  cold.  He  knows,  but  it  does  not  make  any  difference  to 
him.  He  can  analyze  the  period  or  the  character,  but  he  lacks 
any  feeling  response,  any  appreciation  of  the  qualities  of  endur- 
ance and  loyalty  portrayed,  lacks  any  sympathetic  understand- 
ing of  the  difficulties  met  and  conquered.  As  was  true  of  the 
aesthetic  appreciation,  a  certain  amount  of  understanding  is 
necessary  for  true  appreciation  of  any  kind,  but  overemphasis  of 
the  intellectual  element  destroys  the  feehng  element. 

The  third  type  of  appreciation  to  be  discussed  is  the  apprecia- 
tion of  humor.  Perhaps  this  does  not  belong  with  the  other 
type,  but  it  certainly  has  many  of  the  same  characteristics. 
Calkins  defines  a  sense  of  humor  as  "enjoyment  of  an  unessential 
incongruity.  .  .  .  This  incongruity  must  be,  as  has  been  said, 
an  unessential  one,  else  the  mood  of  the  observer  changes  from 
happiness  to  unhappiness,  and  the  comic  becomes  the  pathetic. 
A  fall  on  the  ice  which  seemed  to  offer  only  a  ludicrous  contrast 
between  the  dignity  and  grace  of  the  man  erect  and  the  ungainly 
attitude  of  the  falling  figure  ceases  utterly  to  be  funny  when  it 
is  seen  to  entail  some  physical  injury;  and  wit  which  burns 
and  sears  is  not  amusing  to  its  victim.*'  ^  The  ability  to  appre- 
ciate the  humorous  in  life  is  a  great  gift  and  should  be  cultivated 
to  a  much  greater  extent  than  it  is  at  present. 

A  fourth  type  of  appreciation  has  been  called  appreciation 

of  intellectual  powers  —  a  poor  name  perhaps,  but  the  feeling 

is  a  real  one.     Enjoyment  of  style,  of  logical  sequence,  of  the 

harmony  of  the  whole,  of  the  clear-cut,  concise,  telling  sentences, 

^  Introduction  to  Psychology,  p.  284. 


132  HOW  TO  TEACH 

are  illustrations  of  what  is  meant.  Enjoyment  of  a  piece 
of  literature,  of  a  debate,  of  an  argument,  of  a  piece  of  scientific 
research,  is  not  limited  to  the  appreciation  of  the  meanings 
expressed  —  in  fact,  in  many  cases  the-  only  factor  that  can 
arouse  the  feeling  element,  the  appreciation,  is  this  element  of 
form.  One  may  understand  an  argument  or  a  debate  as  he 
hears  it,  but  appreciation,  enjoyment  of  it,  comes  only  as  a  result 
of  the  consciousness  of  these  elements  of  form. 

That  one  possesses  these  feelings  of  appreciation,  at  least  to 
some  degree,  is  a  matter  of  human  equipment,  but  what  one 
appreciates  in  art,  literature,  human  nature,  etc.,  depends  pri- 
marily on  training.  There  is  almost  no  situation  in  life  that  with 
all  people  at  all  times  will  arouse  appreciative  feelings.  Al- 
though there  are  a  few  fundamental  conditions  estabHshed  by 
the  physical  make-up  of  the  sense  organs  and  by  the  original 
capacities  of  the  human  race,  still  they  are  few,  and  at  present 
largely  unknown,  and  experience  does  much  to  modify  even  these. 
What  is  crude,  vulgar,  inharmonious,  in  art  and  music  to  some 
people,  arouses  extreme  aesthetic  appreciation  in  others.  Litera- 
ture that  causes  one  person  to  throw  the  book  down  in  disgust 
will  give  greatest  enjoyment  to  another.  What  is  malice  to 
one  person  is  humorous  to  another.  What  people  enjoy  and 
appreciate  depends  primarily  on  their  experience  for  the  develop- 
ment of  these  feelings,  depends  upon  the  laws  of^association, 
readiness,  exercise,  and  effect.  To  raise  power  of  appreciation 
from  low  levels  to  high,  from  almost  nothing  to  a  controlling 
force,  needs  but  the  application  of  these  laws.  But  no  one  of 
them  can  be  neglected  with  impunity.  It  must  be  a  gradual 
growth,  beginning  with  tracks  that  are  ready,  because  of  the 
presence  of  certain  instincts,  and  working  on  to  others  through 
the  law  of  association.  To  expect  a  child  of  seven  to  appreciate 
a  steel  engraving,  or  a  piece  of  classic  music,  or  moral  qualities 
in  another  person  is  to  violate  the  law  of  readiness.     To  expect 


AN  IMPORTANT  ELEMENT  IN  EDUCATION  133 

any  one  in  adult  life  to  enjoy  music,  or  art,  or  nature,  who  has  not 
had  experience  with  each  and  enjoyed  each  continually  as  a 
child,  is  to  violate  the  laws  of  exercise  and  effect. 

Two  or  three  suggestions  as  to  aids  in  the  application  of  these 
laws  may  be  in  place.  First,  a  wealth  of  images  is  an  aid  to 
appreciation.  Second,  the  absence  for  the  time  of  the  critical 
attitude.  Third,  an  encouragement  of  the  passive  contemplative 
attitude.  Fourth,  the  example  of  others.  Suggestion  and 
association  with  other  people  who  do  appreciate  and  enjoy  are 
among  the  best  means  of  securing  it. 

The  value  of  feelings  of  appreciation  are  threefold :  First, 
they  serve  as  recreation.  It  is  in  enjoyment  of  this  kind  that 
most  of  the  leisure  of  civilized  races  is  spent.  It  serves  on  the 
mental  level  much  the  same  purpose  that  play  does,  in  fact, 
much  of  it  is  mental  play  of  a  kind.  Second,  they  are  imper- 
sonal. They  are  valuable  in  that  they  take  us  out  of  ourselves, 
away  from  self-interests,  and  therefore  make  for  mental  health 
and  sanity  as  well  as  for  a  sympathetic  character.  They  are 
also  a  means  of  broadening  one's  experience.  Third,  they  have 
a  close  relationship  with  ideals  and  therefore  have  an  active 
bearing  on  conduct.  It  is  not  necessarily  true  that  one  will 
tend  in  himself  or  in  his  surroundings  to  be  like  what  he  enjoys 
and  appreciates,  but  the  tendency  will  be  strongly  in  that 
direction.  If  an  individual  truly  appreciates,  enjoys,  beautiful 
pictures,  good  music  and  books,  he  will  be  likely,  so  far  as 
he  can,  to  surround  himself  with  them.  If  he  appreciates 
loyalty,  openmindedness,  tolerance,  as  he  meets  them  in  litera- 
ture and  history,  he  may  become  more  so  himself.  At  least, 
the  developing  of  appreciations  is  the  first  step  towards  conduct 
in  those  lines.  In  order  to  insure  the  conduct,  other  means 
must  be  taken,  but  without  the  appreciation  the  conduct  will 
be  less  sure. 

One  who  would  count  most  in  developing  power  of  apprecia^ 


134  HOW  TO  TEACH 

tion  upon  the  part  of  children  may  well  inquire  concerning  his 
own  power  of  appreciation.  There  is  not  very  much  possibility 
of  the  development  of  joy  in  poetry,  in  music,  or  any  other 
artistic  form  of  expression  through  association  with  the  teacher 
who  finds  little  satisfaction  in  these  artistic  forms,  who  has 
little  power  of  aesthetic  appreciation.  It  is  only  as  teachers 
themselves  are  sincere  in  their  appreciation  of  the  nobility  of 
character  possessed  by  the  men  and  women  whose  lives  are 
portrayed  in  history,  in  literature,  or  in  contemporary  social 
life  that  one  may  expect  that  their  influence  will  be  important 
in  developing  such  appreciation  upon  the  part  of  children.  Those 
pupils  are  fortunate  who  are  taught  by  teachers  who  have  a 
sense  of  humor,  who  are  able  to  grow  enthusiastic  over  the  in- 
tellectual achievement  of  the  leaders  in  the  field  of  study  or 
investigation  in  which  the  children  are  at  work.  Children  are, 
indeed,  quick  to  discover  sentimentalism  or  pseudo-appreciation 
upon  the  part  of  teachers,  but  even  though  they  may  not  give 
any  certain  expression  to  their  enjoyment,  they  are  usually 
largely  influenced  by  the  attitude  and  genuine  power  of  appre- 
ciation possessed  by  the  teacher. 

In  our  attempt  to  have  children  grow  in  the  field  of  appre- 
ciation we  have  often  made  the  mistake  of  attempting  to  impose 
upon  them  adult  standards.  A  great  Hbrarian  in  one  of  our 
eastern  cities  has  said  that  he  would  rather  have  children  read 
dime  novels  than  to  have  them  read  nothing.  From  his  point 
of  view  it  was  more  important  to  have  children  appreciating 
and  enjoying  something  which  they  read  than  to  have  their 
lives  barren  in  this  respect.  In  literature,  in  music,  and  in  fine 
art  the  development  in  power  of  appreciation  is  undoubtedly 
from  the  simple,  cruder  forms  to  those  which  we  as  adults  con- 
sider the  higher  or  nobler  forms  of  expression.  Mother  Goose, 
the  rhymes  of  Stevenson,  of  Field,  or  of  Riley,  may  be  the 
beginning  of  the  enjoyment  of  literature  which  finds  its  final 


AN  IMPORTANT  ELEMENT  IN  EDUCATION  135 

expression  in  the  reading  and  in  the  possession  of  the  greatest 
literature  of  the  English  language.  The  simple  rote  songs  which 
the  children  learn  in  the  first  grade,  or  which  they  hear  on  the 
phonograph,  may  lead  through  various  stages  of  development 
to  the  enjoyment  of  grand  opera.  Pictures  in  which  bright 
color  predominates  may  be  the  beginning  of  power  of  apprecia- 
tion which  finds  its  fruition  in  a  home  which  is  decorated  with 
reproductions  of  the  world's  masterpieces. 

It  is  not  only  in  the  artistic  field  that  this  growth  in  power  of 
appreciation  from  the  simpler  to  the  more  complex  is  to  be  found. 
Children  instinctively  admire  the  man  who  is  brave  rather 
than  the  man  who  endures.  Achievement  is  for  most  boys 
and  girls  of  greater  significance  than  self-sacrifice.  It  is  only 
as  we  adapt  our  material  to  their  present  attainment,  or  to  an 
attempt  to  have  them  reach  the  next  higher  stage  of  develop- 
ment, that  we  may  expect  genuine  growth.  All  too  often 
instead  of  growth  we  secure  the  development  of  a  hypocritical 
attitude,  which  accepts  the  judgment  of  others,  and  which  never 
really  indicates  genuine  enjoyment. 

While  it  is  best  not  to  insist  upon  an  analysis  of  the  feelings 
that  one  has  in  enjoying  a  picture  or  a  poem  or  a  great  character, 
it  is  worth  while  to  encourage  choice.  Of  many  stories  which 
have  been  told,  children  may  very  properly  choose  one  which 
they  would  like  to  tell  to  others.  Of  many  poems  which  have 
been  read  in  class,  a  group  of  boys  may  admire  one  and  commit 
it  to  memory,  while  the  girls  may  care  for  another  and  be  al- 
lowed to  memorize  it.  Wherever  such  cooperation  is  possible, 
the  picture  which  you  enjoy  most  is  the  one  that  will  mean  most 
in  power  of  appreciation  if  placed  in  your  room  at  home.  Spon- 
taneous approval,  rather  than  an  agreement  with  an  adult 
teacher  who  is  considered  an  authority,  is  to  be  sought  for. 
There  is  more  in  the  spontaneous  laughter  ,  which  results  as 
children  read  together  their  "Alice  in  Wonderland"  than  could 


136  HOW  TO  TEACH 

possibly  result  from  an  analysis  of  the  quality  of  humor  which 
is  involved. 

We  are  coming  to  understand  as  a  matter  of  education  that 
we  may  hope  to  develop  relatively  few  men  and  women  of  great 
creative  genius.  The  producers  of  work  of  great  artistic  worth 
are,  for  the  most  part,  to  be  determined  by  native  capacity 
rather  than  by  school  exercises.  We  must  think  of  the  great 
majority  of  school  children  as  possible  consumers  rather  than  as 
producers.  Schools  which  furnish  a  maximum  of  opportunity 
to  enjoy  music  and  pictures  may  hope  to  develop  in  their  com- 
munity a  power  of  discrimination  in  these  fields  which  will  result 
in  satisfaction  with  nothing  less  than  the  best.  The  player- 
piano  and  the  phonograph  may  mean  more  in  the  development 
of  musical  taste  in  a  community  than  all  of  the  lessons  which 
are  given  in  the  reading  of  music.  The  art  gallery  in  the  high 
school,  the  folk  dances  which  have  been  produced  as  a  part  of 
the  school  festivals,  the  reading  of  the  best  stories,  may  prepare 
the  way  for  the  utilization  of  leisure  time  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
nobler  pleasures.  The  teacher  with  a  saving  sense  of  humor, 
large  in  his  power  of  appreciation  of  the  great  men  and  women 
of  his  time,  and  all  of  the  time  keen  in  his  own  enjoyment  and 
in  his  ability  to  interpret  for  others  those  things  which  are  most 
worth  while  in  literature  and  in  art,  may  count  more  largely  in 
the  life  of  the  community  than  the  one  who  is  a  master  in  some 
field  of  investigation. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  mental  states  which  are  involved 
in  appreciation  ? 

2.  Name  the  different  types  of  situations  in  which  appreciation  may 
be  developed.     Give  examples. 

3.  Does  the  power  to  criticize  poetry  or  music  necessarily  involve 
appreciation  ? 

4.  To  what  degree  may  skill  in  creative  work  result  in  power  of  ap- 
preciation ? 


AN  IMPORTANT  ELEMENT  IN  EDUCATION  137 

5.  What  are  the  elements  involved  in  appreciating  human  nature? 

6.  Give  an  example  of  appreciation  of  intellectual  powers. 

7.  What  is  the  essential  element  in  the  appreciation  of  humor? 

8.  Explain  how  the  power  of  appreciation  is  dependent  upon  training. 

9.  What  values  in  the  education  of  an  individual  are  realized  through 
growth  in  power  of  appreciation  ? 

10.  Why  is  it  important  for  a  teacher  to  seek  to  cultivate  his  own  power 
of  appreciation? 

11.  What  poems,  or  pictures,  or  music  would  you  expect  first-grade 
children  to  enjoy  ?     Why  ? 

12.  Would  you  expect  fifth-grade  children  to  grow  in  appreciation  of 
poetry  by  having  them  commit  to  memory  selections  from  Milton's  Para- 
dise Lost  ?     Why  ? 

13.  Why  is  it  important  to  allow  children  to  choose  the  poems  that  they 
commit  to  memory,  or  the  pictures  which  they  hang  on  their  walls? 

14.  Why  would  you  accept  spontaneous  expression  of  approval  of  the 
characters  in  literature  -or  in  history,  rather  than  seek  to  control  the  judg- 
ments of  children  in  this  respect  ? 

15.  How  may  teachers  prove  most  effective  in  developing  the  power  of 
appreciation  upon  the  part  of  children  ? 


IX 

THE   MEANING  OF  PLAY  IN  EDUCATION 

All  human  activity  might  be  classified  under  three  heads,  — 
play,  work,  and  drudgery,  —  but  just  what  activities  belong  under 
each  head  and  just  what  each  of  the  terms  means  are  questions 
of  dispute.  That  the  boundaries  between  the  three  are  hazy 
and  undefined,  and  that  they  shade  gradually  into  each  other,  are 
without  doubt  true,  but  after  all  play  is  different  from  work, 
and  work  from  drudgery.  Much  of  the  disagreement  as  to 
the  value  of  play  is  due  to  this  lack  of  definition.  Even  to-day 
when  the  worth  of  play  is  so  universally  recognized,  we  still  hear 
the  criticisms  of  ''soft  pedagogy"  and  ''sugar  coating"  used  in 
connection  with  the  application  of  the  principle  of  play  in 
education. 

Although  what  we  call  play  has  its  roots  in  original  equip- 
ment, still  there  is  no  such  thing  as  the  play  instinct,  in  the  sense 
that  there  is  a  hunting  instinct  or  a  fighting  instinct.  Instead, 
of  being  a  definite  instinct,  which  means  a  definite  response  to  a 
definite  situation,  it  is  rather  a  tendency  characteristic  of  all  in- 
stincts and  capacities.  It  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  general  char- 
acteristic of  all  original  nature  towards  activity  of  some  kind. 
This  tendency  is  so  broad  and  so  complex,  the  machinery  govern- 
ing it  is  so  delicate,  that  it  produces  responses  that  vary  tre- 
mendously with  subtle  changes  in  the  individual,  and  with 
slight  modifications  of  the  situation.  What  we  call  play,  then, 
is  nothing  more  than  the  manifestations  of  the  various  instincts 
and  capacities  as  they  appear  at  times  when  they  are  not  im- 

138 


THE  MEANING  OF  PLAY  IN  EDUCATION  139 

mediately  useful.  The  connections  in  the  nervous  system  are 
ripe  and  all  other  factors  have  operated  to  put  them  in  a  state 
of  readiness :  a  situation  occurs  which  stimulates  these  connec- 
tions and  the  child  plays.  These  connections  called  into  activity 
may  result  in  responses  which  are  primarily  physical,  intellec- 
tual, or  emotional  —  all  are  manifestations  of  this  tendency 
towards  activity.  All  habits  of  all  kinds  grow  out  of  this  same 
activity :  habits  which  we  call  work  and  those  which  we  call 
play.  Man  has  not  two  original  natures,  one  defined  in  terms 
of  the  play  instinct,  and  the  other  in  terms  of  work.  Most  of 
the  original  tendencies  involved  in  play  are  not  peculiar  to  it, 
but  also  are  the  source  of  work.  Manifestation  results  in  mak- 
ing "mud  pies  and  apple  pies" ;  physical  activity  results  in  the 
kicking,  squirming,  and  wriggling  of  the  infant  and  the  monoto- 
nous wielding  of  the  hammer  of  the  road  mender.  The  condi- 
tions under  which  an  activity  occui:s,  its  concomitants,  and  the 
attitude  of  the  individual  performing  it  determine  whether  it  is 
play  or  work  —  not  its  source  or  root. 

Much,  then,  of  what  we  call  play  is  simply  the  manifestation 
of  instincts  and  capacities  not  immediately  useful  to  the  child. 
If  they  were  immediately  useful,  they  would  probably  be  put 
under  the  head  of  work,  not  play.  Many  of  the  activities  which 
seem  playful  to  us  and  not  of  immediate  service  do  so  because 
of  the  conditions  of  civilized  life.  Were  the  infants  living  under 
primitive  conditions,  *'in  such  a  community  as  a  human  settle- 
ment seems  likely  to  have  been  twenty-five  thousand  years  ago, 
their  restless  examination  of  small  objects  would  perhaps  seem 
as  utilitarian  as  their  fathers'  hunting."  ^  Certainly  the  tend- 
ency of  little  children  to  chase  a  small  object  going  away  from 
them,  and  to  run  from  a  large  object  approaching  slowly,  their 
tendency  to  collect  and  hoard,  their  tendency  to  outdo  another 
engaged  in  any  instinctive  pursuit,  would  under  primitive  con- 
^  Thorndike,  Origin  of  Man,  p.  146. 


I40  HOW  TO  TEACH 

ditions  have  a  distinct  utilitarian  value,  and  yet  all  such  tend- 
encies are  ranked  as  play  when  manifested  by  the  civilized 
child. 

Other  tendencies  become  playful  rather  than  useful  because 
of  the  complexity  of  the  environment  and  of  the  nervous  system 
responding  to  it.  In  actual  life  we  don't  find  activity  following 
a  neatly  arranged  situation  —  response  system.  On  the  con- 
trary, a  situation  seldom  stimulates  one  response,  and  a  response 
seldom  occurs  in  the  typical  form  required  by  theory.  It  is 
this  mingling  of  responses  brought  about  by  varying  elements  in 
the  situation  that  gives  the  playful  effect.  In  a  less  complex 
environment  this  complexity  would  be  lessened.  Also  experi- 
ence, habit,  tends  to  pin  one  type  of  response  to  a  given  situa- 
tion and  the  minor  connections  gradually  become  eliminated. 
For  example,  if  a  boy  of  nine,  alone  in  the  woods,  was  approached 
by  another  with  threatening  gestures  and  scowls,  the  fighting 
response  would  be  called  out,  and  we  would  not  call  it  play,  be- 
cause it  served  as  protection.  If  the  same  boy  in  his  own 
garden,  with  a  group  of  companions,  was  approached  by  another 
with  scowls,  a  perfectly  good-natured  tussle  might  take  place 
and  we  would  call  it  play.  The  difference  between  the  two 
would  be  in  minor  elements  of  the  situation.  Some  of  these 
differences  are  absence  or  presence  of  companions,  the  strange- 
ness or  familiarity  of  the  surroundings,  the  suddenness  of  the 
appearance  of  the  other  boy,  and  so  on. 

Most  of  the  older  theories  of  play  did  not  take  into  account 
these  three  facts,  i.e.,  the  identity  in  original  nature  of  the  roots 
of  play  and  work ;  the  fact  that  man's  original  nature  fits  him 
for  primitive  not  civilized  society ;  the  complexity  of  the  situa- 
tion —  response  connection  and  its  necessary  variation  with 
minor  elements  in  the  external  situation  and  in  the  individual. 
Earlier  writers,  therefore,  felt  the  need  of  special  theories  of 
play.     The  best  known  of  these  theories  are,  first,  the  Schiller- 


THE  MEANING  OF  PLAY  IN  EDUCATION  141 

Spencer  surplus  energy  theory;  second,  the  Groos  preparation 
for  Hfe  theory;  third,  the  G.  Stanley  Hall  atavistic  theory; 
fourth,  the  Apple  ton  biological  theory.  Each  of  the  theories 
has  some  element  of  truth  in  it,  for  play  is  complex  enough  to 
include  them  all,  but  each,  save  perhaps  the  last,  falls  short  of 
an  adequate  explanation. 

Two  facts  growing  out  of  the  theory  of  play  accepted  by  the 
last  few  paragraphs  need  further  discussion.  First,  the  order 
of  development  in  play.  The  play  activities  must  follow  along 
the  line  of  the  developing  instincts  and  capacities.  As  the  nerve 
tracts  governing  certain  responses  become  ready  to  act,  these 
responses  become  the  controlling  ones  in  play.  So  it  is  that  for 
a  time  play  is  controlled  largely  by  the  instinct  of  manipulation, 
at  another  time  physical  activity  combined  with  competition  is 
most  prominent,  at  another  period  imagination  controls,  still 
later  the  puzzle-solving  tendency  comes  to  the  point  followed  by 
all  the  games  involving  an  intellectual  factor.  This  being  true, 
it  is  not  surprising  to  find  certain  types  of  play  characterizing 
certain  ages  and  to  find  that  though  the  particular  games  may 
vary,  there  is  a  strong  resemblance  between  plays  of  children 
of  the  same  age  all  over  the  world.  It  must  not  be  forgotten, 
however,  that  the  readiness  of  nerve  tracts  to  function,  and 
therefore  the  play  responses,  depends  on  other  factors  as  well 
as  maturity.  The  readiness  of  other  tracts  to  function;  past 
experience  and  habits;  the  stimulus  provided  by  the  present 
situation;  absence  of  competing  stimuli;  sex,  health,  fatigue, 
tradition  —  all  these  and  many  more  factors  modify  the  order 
of  development  of  the  play  tendencies.  Still,  having  these 
facts  in  mind,  it  is  possible  to  indicate  roughly  the  type  of  play 
most  prominent  at  different  ages. 

Children  from  four  to  seven  play  primarily  in  terms  of  sen- 
sory responses,  imagination,  imitation,  and  curiosity  of  the  cruder 
sort.     Love  of  rhythm   also  is  strong  at  this  period.     From 


142  HOW  TO  TEACH 

seven  to  ten  individual  competition  or  rivalry  becomes  very 
strong  and  influences  physical  games,  the  collecting  tendency, 
and  manipulation,  all  of  which  tendencies  are  prominent  at  this 
time.  Ten  to  twelve  or  thirteen  is  characterized  by  the  "gang'' 
spirit  which  shows  itself  in  connection  with  all  outdoor  games 
and  adventures ;  memory  is  a  large  factor  in  some  of  the  plays 
of  this  period,  and  independent  thinking  in  connection  with 
situations  engendered  by  manipulation  and  the  gang  spirit 
becomes  stronger.  At  this  period  the  differences  between  girls 
and  boys  become  more  marked.  The  girls  choose  quieter  in- 
door games,  chumming  becomes  prominent,  and  interest  in 
books,  especially  of  the  semi-religious  and  romantic  type,  comes 
to  the  front.  In  the  early  adolescent  period  the  emotional  fac- 
tor is  strong  and  characterizes  many  of  the  playful  activities; 
the  intellectual  element  takes  precedence  over  the  physical; 
the  group  interest  widens,  although  the  interest  in  leadership 
and  independent  action  still  remains  strong ;  teasing  and  bully- 
ing are  also  present.  This  summary  is  by  no  means  complete, 
but  it  indicates  in  a  very  general  way  the  prominent  tendencies 
at  the  periods  indicated. 

The  second  fact  needing  further  elaboration  is  that  of  the 
complexity  of  the  play  activity.  Take,  for  instance,  a  four-year- 
old  playing  with  a  doll.  She  fondles,  cuddles,  trundles  it,  and 
takes  it  to  bed  with  her.  It  is  jumped  up  and  down  and  dragged 
about.  It  is  put  through  many  of  the  experiences  that  the  child 
is  having,  especially  the  unpleasant  ones.  Its  eyes  and  hair,  its 
arms  and  legs,  are  examined.  Questions  are  asked  such  as, 
''Where  did  it  come  from?"  ''Who  made  it?"  "Has  it  a 
stomach ?  "  "Will  it  die ?  "  In  many  instances  it  is  personified. 
The  child  is  often  perfectly  content  to  play  with  it  alone,  with- 
out the  presence  of  other  children.  This  activity  shows  the 
presence  of  the  nursing  instinct,  the  tendency  towards  manip- 
ulation, physical  activity,  imitation  and  curiosity  of  the  empiri- 


THE  MEANING  OF  PLAY  IN  EDUCATION  143 

cal  type.  The  imagination  is  active  but  still  undifferentiated 
from  perception.  The  contentment  in  playing  alone,  or  with 
an  adult,  shows  the  stage  of  development  of  the  gregarious  in- 
stinct. A  girl  of  nine  no  longer  cuddles  or  handles  her  doll  just 
for  the  pleasure  she  gets  out  of  that,  nor  is  the  doll  put  through 
such  violent  physical  exercises.  The  child  has  passed  beyond 
the  aimless  manipulation  and  physical  activity  that  charac- 
terized the  younger  child.  Instead  she  makes  things  for  it, 
clothes,  furniture,  or  jewelry,  still  manipulation,  and  still  the 
nursing  instincts,  but  modified  and  directed  towards  more  prac- 
tical ends.  Imitation  now  shows  itself  in  activities  that  are 
organized.  The  child  plays  Sunday,  or  calling,  or  traveling,  or 
market  day,  in  which  the  doll  takes  her  part  in  a  series  of  related 
activities.  But  in  these  activities  constructive  imagination  ap- 
pears as  an  element.  Situations  are  not  absolutely  duplicated, 
occurrences  are  changed  to  suit  the  fancy  of  the  player,  as  de- 
manded by  the  dramatic  interest.  A  fairy  prince,  or  a  god- 
mother, may  be  participants,  but  at  this  age  the  constructive 
imagination  is  likely  to  work  along  more  practical  lines.  Curi- 
osity is  also  present,  but  now  the  questions  asked  are  such  as, 
''What  makes  her  eyes  work?"  ''Why  can't  she  stand  up?" 
or  they  often  pertain  to  the  things  that  are  being  made  for  the 
doll.  They  have  to  do  with  "How"  or  "Why"  instead  of  the 
"What."  The  doll  may  still  be  talked  to  and  even  be  supposed 
to  talk  back,  but  the  child  knows  it  is  all  play ;  it  is  no  longer 
personified  as  in  the  earlier  period.  For  the  child  fully  to  enjoy 
her  play,  she  must  now  have  companions  of  her  own  age,  the 
older  person  no  longer  suffices. 

The  outdoor  games  of  boys  show  the  same  kind  of  complexity, 
—  for  instance,  take  any  of  the  running  games.  With  little  boys 
they  are  unorganized  manifestations  of  mere  physical  activity. 
The  running  is  more  or  less  at  random,  arms  and  vocal  organs 
are  used  as  much  as  the  legs  and  trunk.     Imitation  comes  in  — 


144  HOW  TO  TEACH 

what  one  does  others  are  likely  to  do.  The  mere  '' follow"  in- 
stinct is  strong,  and  they  run  after  each  other.  The  beginnings 
of  the  fighting  instinct  appear  in  the  more  or  less  friendly  tussles 
they  have.  The  stage  of  the  gregarious  instinct  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  they  all  play  together.  Later  with  boys  of  nine  or  ten 
the  play  has  become  a  game,  with  rules  governing  it.  The 
general  physical  activity  has  been  replaced  by  a  specialized  form. 
Imitation  is  less  of  a  factor.  The  hunting  instinct  often  appears 
unexpectedly,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  play  the  elements  of  the 
chase  interfere  with  the  proper  conduct  of  the  game.  The 
fighting  instinct  is  strong,  and  is  very  easily  aroused.  The  boys 
now  play  in  gangs  or  groups,  and  the  tendency  towards  leader- 
ship manifests,  itself  within  the  group.  The  intellectual  element 
appears  again  and  again,  in  planning  the  game,  in  judging  of  the 
possibility  of  succeeding  at  different  stages,  or  in  settling  disputes 
that  are  sure  to  arise.  So  it  is  with  all  the  plays  of  children : 
they  are  complexes  of  the  various  tendencies  present,  and  the 
controlling  elements  change  as  the  inner  development  continues. 

All  activities  when  indulged  in  playfully  have  certain  common 
characteristics.  First,  the  activity  is  enjoyed  for  its  own  sake. 
The  process  is  satisfying  in  itself.  Results  may  come  naturally, 
but  they  are  not  separated  from  the  process ;  the  reason  for  the 
enjoyment  is  not  primarily  the  result,  but  rather  the  whole 
activity.  Second,  the  activity  is  indulged  in  by  the  player  be- 
cause it  satisfies  some  inner  need,  and  only  by  indulging  in  it 
can  the  need  be  satisfied.  It  uses  neurone  tracts  that  were 
''ready."  Growing  out  of  these  two  major  characteristics  are 
several  others.  The  attention  is  free  and  immediate;  much 
energy  is  used  with  comparatively  little  fatigue;  self-activity 
and  initiative  are  freely  displayed. 

At  the  other  extreme  of  activity  is  drudgery.  Its  characteris- 
tics are  just  the  opposite  of  these.  First,  the  activity  is  engaged 
in  merely  for  the  result  —  the  process  counting  for  nothing  and 


THE  MEANING  OF  PLAY  IN  EDUCATION  145 

the  result  being  the  only  thing  of  value.  Second,  the  process, 
instead  of  satisfying  some  need,  is  rather  felt  to  be  in  violation 
of  the  nature  of  the  one  engaged.  It  uses  neurone  tracts  that 
are  not  "ready"  and  at  the  same  time  prevents  the  action  of 
tracts  that  are  ''ready."  It  becomes  a  task.  The  attention 
necessarily  must  be  of  the  forced,  derived  type,  in  which  fatigue 
comes  quickly  as  a  result  of  divided  attention,  results  are  poor, 
and  there  is  no  chance  for  initiative. 

Between  these  two  extremes  lies  work.  It  differs  from  play 
in  that  the  results  are  usually  of  more  value  and  in  that  the 
attention  is  therefore  often  of  the  derived  type.  It  differs  from 
drudgery  in  that  there  is  not  the  sharp  distinction  between  the 
process  and  the  result  and  in  that  the  attention  may  often  be  of 
the  free  spontaneous  type.  It  was  emphasized  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapter  that  the  boundaries  between  the  three  were 
hazy  and  ill  defined.  This  is  especially  true  of  work;  it  may 
be  indistinguishable  from  play  as  it  partakes  of  its  characteris- 
tics, or  it  may  swing  to  the  other  extreme  and  be  almost  drudgery. 
The  difference  between  the  three  activities  is  a  subjective 
matter  —  a  difference  largely  in  mood,  in  attitude  of  the 
person  concerned,  due  to  the  readiness  or  unreadiness  of  the 
neurone  tracts  exercised.  The  same  activity  may  be  play 
for  one  person,  work  for  another,  and  drudgery  for  still 
another.  Further,  for  the  same  person  the  same  activity  may 
be  play,  work,  or  drudgery,  at  different  times,  even  within  the 
same  day. 

Which  of  the  three  is  the  most  valuable  for  educational  pur- 
poses? Certainly  not  drudgery.  It  is  deadening,  uneduca- 
tive,  undevelopmental.  Any  phase  of  education,  though  it  may 
be  a  seemingly  necessary  one,  that  has  the  characteristics  of 
drudgery  is  valueless  in  itself.  As  a  means  to  an  end  it  may 
serve  —  but  with  the  antagonistic  attitude,  the  annoyance 
aroused  by  drudgery,  it  seems  a  very  questionable  means.     Edu- 


146  HOW  TO  TEACH 

cation  that  can  obtain  the  results  required  by  a  civilized  com- 
munity and  yet  use  the  play  spirit  is  the  ideal. 

But  to  have  children  engaged  in  play,  in  the  sense  of  free 
play,  cannot  be  the  only  measure.  There  must  be  supervision 
and  direction.  The  spirit  that  characterizes  the  activities 
which  are  not  immediately  useful  must  be  incorporated  into 
those  that  are  useful  by  means  of  the  shifting  of  association 
bonds.  Nor  can  all  parts  of  the  process  seem  worth  while  to 
the  learner.  Sometimes  the  process  or  parts  of  it  must  become 
a  means  to  an  end,  for  the  end  is  remote.  But  all  this  is  true  to. 
some  extent  in  free  play  —  digging  the  worms  in  order  to  go 
fishing,  finding  the  scissors  and  thread  in  order  to  make  the 
doll's  dress,  making  arrangements  with  the  other  team  to  play 
ball,  finding  the  right  pieces  of  wood  for  the  hut,  and  so  on,  may 
not  be  satisfactory  in  and  of  themselves,  but  may  be  almost 
drudgery.  They  are  not  drudgery  because  they  become  fused 
in  the  whole  process,  they  take  over  and  are  lost  in  the  joy  of 
the  undertaking  as  a  whole ;  they  become  a  legitimate  means  to 
an  end,  and  in  so  far  take  over  in  derived  form  the  interest  that 
is  roused  by  the  whole.  It  is  this  fusion  of  work  and  play  that 
is  desirable  in  education.  This  is  the  great  lesson  of  play  —  it 
shows  the  value  and  encourages  the  logical  combination  of  the 
two  activities.  Children  learn  to  work  as  they  play.  They 
learn  the  meaning  and  value  of  work.  Work  becomes  a  means 
to  an  end,  and  that  end  not  something  remote  and  disconnected 
from  the  activity  itself,  but  as  part  and  parcel  of  it.  Thus  the 
activity  as  a  whole  embued  with  the  play  spirit  becomes 
motivated. 

The  play  spirit  is  the  spirit  of  art.  No  great  result  was 
achieved  in  any  line  of  human  activity  without  much  work,  and 
yet  no  great  result  was  ever  gained  unless  the  play  spirit  con- 
trolled. It  is  to  this  interaction  of  work  and  play  that  each 
owes  much  of  its  value.     Work  in  and  of  itself  apart  from  play 


THE  MEANING  OF  PLAY  IN  EDUCATION  147 

lacks  educative  power;  it  is  only  as  it  leads  to  and  increases  the 
power  of  play  that  it  is  of  greatest  value.  Its  logical  place  in 
education  is  as  a  means  to  an  end,  not  as  an  end  in  itself.  Play, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  does  not  necessitate  some  work,  that 
does  not  need  work  in  order  that  it  may  function  more 
fully,  has  lost  most  of  its  educational  value.  To  work  in  play 
and  to  play  while  working  is  the  ideal  combination.  Either  by 
itself  is  dangerous. 

Two  misconceptions  should  be  mentioned.  First,  the  play 
spirit  advocated  as  one  of  the  greatest  educational  factors  must 
not  be  limited  to  the  merely  physical  activities,  nor  should  it  be 
considered  synonymous  with  what  is  easy.  This  characteriza- 
tion of  play  as  being  the  aimless  trivial  physical  activities  of  a 
little  child  is  a  misconception  of  the  whole  play  tendency.  It 
has  already  been  pointed  out  that  any  activity  which  in  itself 
satisfies,  whether  that  be  physical,  emotional,  or  intellectual,  is 
play,  and  all  these  phases  of  human  activity  show  themselves  in 
play  first.  Also  the  fact  that  play  does  not  mean  ease  of  accom- 
plishment has  been  noted.  It  is  only  in  the  play  spirit  that  the 
full  resources  of  child  or  adult  are  tested.  It  is  only  when  the 
activity  fully  satisfies  some  need  that  the  individual  throws  him- 
self whole-souled  into  it.  It  is  only  under  the  stimulus  of  the 
play  spirit  that  all  one's  energy  is  spent,  and  great  results,  clear, 
accurate,  and  far  reaching,  are  obtained.  Ease  of  performance 
often  results  in  drudgery.  To  be  play,  the  activity  must  be 
suited  to  the  child's  capacity,  but  leave  chance  for  initiative  and 
change  and  development. 

The  second  misconception  is  that  because  present-day  educa- 
tors advocate  play  in  education,  they  believe  that  the  child 
should  do  nothing  that  he  doesn't  want  to.  This  is  wrong  on 
two  accounts.  First,  it  is  part  of  the  business  of  an  environ- 
ment to  stimulate  —  readiness  depends  partly  on  stimulation. 
The  child  may  never  play  unless  the  stimulation  is  forcibly  and 


148  HOW  TO  TEACH 

continually  applied.  Second,  after  all  it  is  the  result  we  are 
most  anxious  for  in  education,  and  that  result  is  an  educated 
adult.  By  all  means  let  us  obtain  this  result  by  the  most  eco- 
nomical and  effective  method,  and  that  is  by  use  of  the  play 
spirit.  But  if  the  result  cannot  be  obtained  by  this  means  be- 
cause of  the  character  of  civilized  ideals,  or  the  difficulties  of 
group  education,  or  lack  of  capacity  of  the  individual  —  then 
surely  other  methods,  even  that  of  drudgery,  must  be  resorted 
to.  The  point  is,  with  the  goal  in  mind,  adapt  the  material  of 
education  to  the  needs  of  the  individual  child ;  in  other  words, 
use  the  play  spirit  so  far  as  is  possible  —  after  that  gain  the  rest 
by  any  means  whatsoever. 

So  far  the  discussion  has  been  concerned  with  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  play  spirit  and  its  use  in  connection  with  the  more 
formal  materials  of  education.  However,  the  free  plays  of  chil- 
dren are  valuable  in  two  ways  —  first,  as  sources  of  information 
as  to  the  particular  tendencies  ready  for  exercise  at  different 
times,  and  second,  as  a  means  of  education  in  themselves.  A 
knowledge  of  just  which  tendencies  are  most  prominent  in  the 
plays  of  a  group  of  children,  when  they  change  from  ''play''  to 
"games,"  the  increase  in  complexity  and  organization,  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  intellectual  factors,  —  all  this  could  be  of 
direct  service  to  a  teacher  in  the  schoolroom.  But  it  means,  to 
some  extent,  the  observation  by  the  teacher  of  his  particular 
group  of  children.  Such  observation  is  extremely  fruitful.  The 
more  vigorously,  the  more  wholeheartedly,  the  more  com- 
pletely a  child  plays,  other  things  being  equal,  the  better.  A 
deprivation  of  opportunity  to  play,  or  a  loss  of  any  particular 
type  of  play,  means  a  loss  of  the  development  of  certain  traits 
or  characteristics.  An  all-round,  well-developed  adult  can 
grow  only  from  a  child  developed  in  an  all-round  way  because 
of  many-sided  play.  Hence  the  value  of  public  playgrounds 
and    of    time    to    play.     Hence   the   danger   of   the   isolated, 


THE  MEANING  OF  PLAY  IN  EDUCATION  149 

lonely  child,  for  many  plays   demand  the  group.     Hence  the 
opportunities  and  the  dangers  of  supervision  of  play. 

Supervision  of  play  is  valuable  in  so  far  as  it  furnishes  oppor- 
tunities and  suggestions  which  develop  the  elements  most  worth 
while  in  play  and  which  keep  play  at  its  highest  level,  and  in  so 
far  as  it  concerns  the  nature  of  the  individual  child,  protecting, 
admonishing,  or  encouraging,  as  the  case  may  require.  It  is 
dangerous  to  the  child's  best  good,  in  so  far  as  it  results  in  domi- 
nation; for  domination  will  mean,  usually,  the  introduction  of 
plays  beyond  the  child's  stage  of  development  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  independence  and  initiative  which  are  two  of  the 
most  valuable  characteristics  of  free  play.  Valuable  supervision 
of  play  is  art  that  must  be  acquired.  To  influence,  while  effacing 
oneself,  to  guide,  while  being  one  of  the  players,  to  have  an 
adult's  understanding  of  the  needs  of  child  nature  and  yet  to  be 
one  with  the  children  —  these  are  the  essentials  of  the  supervision 
of  play. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Distinguish  between  the  fighting  instinct  and  the  instinctive  basis 
of  play. 

2.  Under  what  conditions  may  an  activity  which  we  classify  as  play 
for  a  civilized  child  be  called  work  for  a  child  living  under  primitive  con- 
ditions ? 

3.  What  kinds  of  plays  are  characteristic  of  different  age  periods  in 
the  life  of  children  ? 

4.  Trace  the  development  of  some  game  played  by  the  older  boys  in 
your  school  from  its  simpler  beginnings  in  the  play  of  little  children  to  its 
present  complexity. 

5.  Name  the  characteristics  common  to  all  playful  activity. 

6.  Distinguish  between  play  and  drudgery. 

7.  What  is  the  difference  between  work  and  play? 

8.  To  what  degree  may  the  activities  of  the  school  be  made  play? 

9.  Explain  why  the  same  activity  may  be  play  for  one  individual,  work 
for  another,  and  drudgery  for  a  third. 


I50  HOW  TO  TEACH 

10.  Why  should  we  seek  to  make  the  play  element  prominent  in  school 
activity  ? 

1 1 .  When  is  one  most  efficient  in  individual  pursuits  —  when  his  activity 
is  play,  when  he  works,  or  when  he  is  a  drudge  ? 

12.  Under  what  conditions  should  we  compel  children  to  work,  or  even 
to  engage  in  an  activity  which  may  involve  drudgery  ? 

13.  Explain  how  play  may  involve  the  maximum  of  utilization  of  the 
abilities  possessed  by  the  individual,  rather  than  a  type  of  activity  easy  of 
accomplishment. 

14  .   In  what  does  skill  in  the  supervision  of  play  consist  ? 


X 

THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 
FOR  THE  TEACHER 

It  has  been  indicated  here  and  there  throughout  the  pre- 
vious chapters  that,  despite  the  fact  that  there  are  certain  laws 
governing  the  various  mental  traits  and  processes,  still  there 
is  variation  in  the  working  of  those  laws.  It  was  pointed 
out  that  people  differ  in  kind  of  memory  or  imagination  in  which 
they  excel,  in  their  ability  to  appreciate,  in  the  speed  with 
which  they  form  habits,  and  so  on.  In  other  words,  that  boys 
and  .girls  are  not  exact  duplicates  of  each  other,  but  that  they 
always  differ  from  each  other.  Now  a  knowledge  of  these  dif- 
ferences, their  amounts,  interrelations,  and  causes  are  very 
necessary  for  the  planning  of  a  school  system  or  for  the  plan- 
ning of  the  education  of  a  particular  child.  What  we  plan  and 
how  we  plan  educational  undertakings  must  always  be  influenced 
by  our  opinion  as  to  inborn  traits,  ^ex  differences,  specialization 
of  mental  traits,  speed  of  development,  the  respective  power 
of  nature  and  of  nurture.  The  various  plans  of  promotion  and 
grouping  of  children  found  in  different  cities  are  in  operation 
because  of  certain  beHefs  concerning  differences  in  general  mental 
ability.  Coeducation  is  urged  or  deplored  largely  on  the  ground 
of  belief  in  the  differing  abilities  of  the  sexes. 
/  Exact  knowledge  of  just  what  differences  do  exist  between 
people  and  the  causes  of  these  differences  is  important  for  two 
reasons.  First,  in  order  that  the  most  efficient  measures  may 
be  taken  for  the  education  of  the  individual,  and  second,  in 

151 


152  HOW  TO  TEACH 

order  that  the  race  as  a  whole  may  be  made  better>  Education 
can  only  become  efficient  and  economical  when  we  know  which 
differences  between  people  and  which  achievements  of  a  given 
person  are  due  to  training,  and  which  are  due  more  largely  to 
original  equipment  or  maturity.  It  is  a  waste  of  time  on  the  one 
hand  for  education  to  concern  itself  with  trying  to  make  all 
children  good  spellers  —  if  spelling  is  a  natural  gift ;  and  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  lack  of  efficiency  for  schools  to  be  largely  neg- 
lecting the  moral  development  of  the  children,  if  morality  is 
dependent  primarily  on  education.  Exact  knowledge,  not 
opinions,  along  all  these  lines  is  necessary  if  progress  is  to  be 
made. 

'  The  principal  causes  for  individual  differences  are  sex,  remote 
ancestry,  near  ancestry,  maturity,  and  training.  The  question 
to  be  answered  in  the  discussion  of  each  of  these  causes  is  how 
important  a  factor  is  it  in  the  production  of  differences  and  just 
what  differences  is  it  responsible  for.'  That  men  differ  from 
women  has  always  been  an  accepted  fact,  but  exact  knowledge 
of  how  much  and  how  they  differ  has,  until  recent  years,  been 
lacking.  Recently  quantitative  measurement  has  been  made 
by  a  number  of  investigators.  In  making  these  investigations 
two  serious  difficulties  have  to  be  met.  First,  that  the  tests 
measure  only  the  differences  brought  about  by  differences  in 
sex,  and  not  by  any  other  cause,  such  as  family  or  training. 
This  difficulty  has  been  met  by  taking  people  of  all  ages,  from 
all  sorts  of  families,  with  all  kinds  of  training,  the  constant 
factor  being  the  difference  in  sex.  The  second  difficulty  is 
that  of  finding  groups  in  which  the  selection  agencies  have  been 
the  same  and  equally  operative.  It  would  be  obviously  unfair 
to  compare  college  men  and  women,  and  expect  to  get  a  fair 
result  as  to  sex  differences,  because  college  women  are  a  more 
highly  selected  group  intellectually  than  the  college  men.  It 
is  the  conventional  and  social  demands  that  are  primarily  re- 


THE   SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES      153 

sponsible  for  sending  boys  to  college,  while  the  intellectual  im- 
pulse is  responsible  to  a  greater  extent  for  sending  girls. 
Examination  of  children  in  the  elementary  schools,  then,  gives 
a  fairer  result  than  of  the  older  men  and  women.  The  general 
results  of  all  the  studies  made  point  to  the  fact  that  the  differ- 
ences between  the  sexes  are  small.  /  Sex  is  the  cause  of  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  differences  between  individuals.  The 
total  difference  of  men  from  men  and  women  from  women  is 
almost  as  great  as  the  difference  between  men  and  women,  for 
the  distribution  curve  of  woman's  ability  in  any  trait  overlaps 
the  men's  curve  to  at  least  half  its  range.  In  detail  the  exact 
measurements  of  intellectual  abilities  show  a  slight  superiority 
of  the  women  in  receptivity  and  memory,  and  a  slight  superiority 
of  the  men  in  control  of  movement  and  in  thought  about  con- 
crete mechanical  situations.  In  interests  which  cannot  be  so 
definitely  measured,  women  seem  to  be  more  interested  in  people 
and  men  in  things.  In  instinctive  equipment  women  excel  in 
the  nursing  impulse  and  men  in  the  fighting  impulse.  In 
physical  equipment  men  are  stronger  and  bigger  than  women. 
They  excel  in  muscular  tests  in  ability  to  ''spurt,"  whereas 
women  do  better  in  endurance  tests.  The  male  sex  seems  on  the 
whole  to  be  slightly  more  variable  than  the  female,  i.e.,  its  curve 
of  distribution  is  somewhat  flatter  and  extends  both  lower  and 
higher  than  does  that  of  the  female ;  or,  stated  another  way, 
men  furnish  more  than  their  proportion  of  idiots  and  of  geniuses. 
Slight  though  these  differences  are,  they  are  not  to  be  disre- 
garded, for  sometimes  the  resulting  habits  are  important.  For 
instance,  girls  should  be  better  spellers  than  boys.  Boys  should 
excel  in  physics  and  chemistry.  Women  should  have  more 
tact  than  men,  whereas  men  should  be  more  impartial  in  their 
judgments.  With  the  same  intellectual  equipment  as  women, 
men  should  be  found  more  often  in  positions  of  prominence 
because  of  the  strength  of  the  fighting  instinct.     The  geniuses 


154  HOW  TO  TEACH 

of  the  world,  the  leaders  in  any  field,  as  well  as  the  idiots,  should 
more  often  be  men  than  women.  That  these  differences  do 
exist,  observation  as  well  as  experiment  prove,  but  that  they  are 
entirely  due  to  essential  innate  differences  in  sex  is  still  open  to 
question.  Differences  in  treatment  of  the  sexes  in  ideals  and 
in  training  for  generation  after  generation  may  account  for  some 
of  the  differences  noted. 

/  What  these  differences  mean  from  the  standpoint  of  practice  is 
still  another  question.  Difference  in  equipment  need  not  mean 
difference  in  treatment,  nor  need  identity  of  equipment  neces- 
sarily mean  identity  of  training.  The  kind  of  education  given 
will  have  to  be  determined  not  only  by  the  nature  of  the  indi- 
vidual, but  also  by  the  ideals  held  for  and  the  efficiency  demanded 
from  each  sex. 

/  Another  cause  of  the  differences  existing  between  individuals 
is  difference  in  race  inheritance.  In  causing  differences  in 
physical  traits  this  factor  is  prominent.  The  American  Indians 
have  physical  traits  in  common  which  differentiate  them  from 
other  races;  the  same  thing  is  true  of  the  Negroes  and  the 
Mongolians.  It  has  always  been  taken  for  granted  that  the 
same  kind  of  difference  between  the  races  existed  in  mental 
traits.  To  measure  the  mental  differences  caused  by  race  is 
an  extremely  difficult  problem.  Training,  environment,  tradi- 
tion, are  such  potent  factors  in  confusing  the  issue.  The  diffi- 
culty is  to  measure  inborn  traits,  not  achievement.  Hence  the 
results  from  actual  measurement  are  very  few  and  are  confined 
to  the  sensory  and  sensorimotor  traits.  Woodworth,  in  sum- 
ming up  the  results  of  these  tests,  says,  "On  the  whole,  the 
keenness  of  the  senses  seems  to  be  about  on  a  par  in  the  various 
races  of  mankind.  ...  If  the  results  could  be  taken  at  their 
face  value,  they  would  indicate  differences  in  intelligence  be- 
tween races,  giving  such  groups  as  the  Pygmy  and  Negrito  a 
low  station  as  compared  with  most  of  mankind.     The  fairness 


THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES      155 

of  the  test  is  not,  however,  beyond  question.^  1  The  generality 
of  this  conclusion  concerning  the  differences  in  intelligence 
reveals  the  lack  of  data.  No  tests  of  the  higher  intellectual 
processes,  such  as  the  ability  to  analyze,  to  associate  in  terms 
of  elements,  to  formulate  new  principles,  and  the  like,  have 
been  given.  Some  anthropologists  are  skeptical  of  the  exist- 
ence of  any  great  differences,  while  others  believe  that  though 
there  is  much  overlapping,  still  differences  of  considerable  mag- 
nitude do  exist.  At  present  we  do  not  know  how  much  of  the 
differences  existing  between  individuals  is  due  to  differences  in 
remote  ancestry. 

,  Maturity  as  a  cause  of  differences  between  individuals  gives 
quite  as  unsatisfactory  results  as  remote  ancestry.  Every 
thoughtful  student  of  children  must  realize  that  inner  growth, 
apart  from  training,  has  something  to  do  with  the  changes  which 
take  place  in  a  child ;  that  he  differs  from  year  to  year  because 
of  a  difference  in  maturity.  This  same  cause,  then,  must  ac- 
count to  some  extent  for  the  differences  between  individuals  of 
different  ages.  But  just  how  great  a  part  it  plays,  what  per 
cent  of  the  difference  it  accounts  for,  and  what  particular  traits 
it  affects  much  or  little,  no  one  knows .\  We  say  in  general  that 
nine-year-old  children  are  more  suggestible  than  six-year-old, 
and  than  fourteen-year-old ;  that  the  point  of  view  of  the  fif- 
teen-year-old is  different  from  that  of  the  eleven-year-old ;  that 
the  power  of  sense  discrimination  gradually  increases  up  to 
about  sixteen,  and  so  on.  That  these  facts  are  true,  no  one 
can  question,  but  how  far  they  are  due  to  mere  change  in  matur- 
ity and  how  far  to  training  or  to  the  increase  in  power  of  some 
particular  capacity,  such  as  understanding  directions,  or  power 
of  forced  attention,  is  unknown.  The  studies  which  have  been 
undertaken  along  this  line  have  failed  in  two  particulars :  first, 
to  distribute  the  actual  changes  found  from  year  to  year  among 
*  Racial  Differences  in  Mental  Traits,  pp.  177  and  181, 


156  HOW  TO  TEACH 

the  three  possible  causes,  maturity,  general  powers  of  compre- 
hension and  the  like,  and  training ;  second,  to  measure  the  same 
individuals  from  year  to  year.  This  last  error  is  very  common 
in  studies  of  human  nature.  It  is  taken  for  granted  that  to 
examine  ten  year  olds  and  then  eleven  year  olds  and  then  twelve 
year  olds  will  give  what  ten  year  olds  will  become  in  one  and 
two  years'  time  respectively.  To  test  a  group  of  grammar 
grade  children  and  then  a  group  of  high  school  and  then  a  group 
of  college  students  will  not  show  the  changes  in  maturity  from 
grammar  school  to  college.  The  method  is  quite  wrong,  for  it 
tests  only  the  ten  year  olds  that  stay  in  school  long  enough  to 
become  twelve  year  olds ;  it  measures  only  the  very  small  per 
cent  of  the  grammar  school  children  who  get  to  college.  In 
other  words,  it  is  measuring  a  more  highly  selected  group  and 
accepting  the  result  obtained  from  them  as  true  of  the  entire 
group.  Because  of  these  two  serious  errors  in  the  investiga- 
tions our  knowledge  of  the  influence  of  maturity  as  a  cause  of 
individual  differences  is  no  better  than  opinion.  Two  facts, 
however,  such  studies  do  make  clear.  First,  the  supposi- 
tion that  ''  the  increases  in  ability  due  to  a  given  amount  of 
progress  toward  maturity  are  closely  alike  for  all  children 
save  the  so-called  'abnormally-precocious'  or  'retarded'  is 
false.  The  same  fraction  of  the  total  inner  development,  from 
zero  to  adult  ability,  will  produce  very  unequal  results  in 
different  children.  Inner  growth  acts  differently  according  to 
the  original  nature  that  is  growing.  The  notion  that  ma- 
turity is  the  main  factor  in  the  differences  found  amongst 
school  children,  so  that  grading  and  methods  of  teaching  should 
be  fitted  closely  to  'stage  of  growth,'  is  also  false.  It  is  by 
no  means  very  hard  to  find  seven  year  olds  who  can  do  in- 
tellectual work  in  which  one  in  twenty  seventeen  year  olds 
would  fail."  1 

^  Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  p.  374. 


THE   SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES      157 

'^  The  question  as  to  how  far  immediate  heredity  is  a  cause 
of  differences  found  between  individuals,  can  only  be  answered 
by  measuring  how  much  more  alike  members  of  the  same  family 
are  in  a  given  trait  than  people  picked  at  random,  and  then 
making  allowance  for  similarity  in  their  training.\  The  greater 
the  likenesses  between  members  of  the  same  family,  and  the 
greater  the  differences  between  members  of  different  families, 
despite  similarities  in  training,  the  more  can  individual  differ- 
ences be  traced  to  differences  in  ancestry  as  a  controlling 
cause.  The  answer  to  this  question  has  been  obtained  along 
four  different  lines  :  First,  likenesses  in  physical  traits ;  second, 
likenesses  in  particular  abilities;  third,  likenesses  in  achieve- 
ment along  intellectual  and  moral  lines;  fourth,  greater  like- 
nesses between  twins  than  ordinary  siblings.  In  physical  traits, 
such  as  eye  color,  hair  color,  cephalic  index,  height,  family 
resemblance  is  very  strong  (the  coefficient  of  correlation  being 
about  .5),  and  here  training  can  certainly  have  had  no  effect. 
/  In  particular  abilities,  such  as  abiHty  in  spelling,  the  stage 
reached  by  an  individual  is  due  primarily  to  his  inheritance, 
the  ability  being  but  little  influenced  by  the  differences  in  home 
or  school  training  that  commonly  exist.  In  general  achieve- 
ment, Galton's  results  show  that  eminence  runs  in  families, 
that  one  has  more  than  three  hundred  times  the  chance  of  being 
eminent  if  one  has  a  brother,  father,  or  son  eminent,  than  the 
individual  picked  at  random .\  Wood's  investigation  in  royal 
families  points  to  the  same  influence  of  ancestry  in  determining 
achievement.  The  studies  of  the  Edwards  family  on  one 
hand  and  the  so-called  Kallikak  family  on  the  other  point  to 
the  same  conclusion.  Twins  are  found  to  be  twice  as  much 
alike  in  the  traits  tested  as  other  brothers  and  sisters.  Though 
the  difficulty  of  discounting  the  effect  of  training  in  all  these 
studies  has  been  great,  yet  in  every  case  the  investigators  have 
taken  pains  to  do  so.     The  fact  that  the  investigations  along 


158  HOW  TO  TEACH 

such  different  lines  all  bear  out  the  same  conclusion,  namely, 
that  intellectual  differences  are  largely  due  to  differences  in 
family  inheritance,  weighs  heavily  in  favor  of  its  being  a  correct 
one. 

/  The  fifth  factor  that  might  account  for  individual  differences 
is  environment.  By  environment  we  mean  any  influence 
brought  to  bear  on  the  individual.  The  same  difficulty  has  been 
met  in  attempting  to  measure  the  effect  of  environment  that 
was  met  iii  trying  to  measure  the  effect  of  inner  nature  —  namely, 
that  of  testing  one  without  interference  from  the  other.  The 
attempts  to  measure  accurately  the  effect  of  any  one  element 
in  the  environment  have  not  been  successful.  No  adequate 
way  of  avoiding  the  complications  involved  by  different  natures 
has  been  found.  One  of  the  greatest  errors  in  the  method  of 
working  with  this  problem  has  been  found  just  here.  It  has 
been  customary  when  the  effect  of  a  certain  element  in  the  envi- 
ronment is  to  be  ascertained  to  investigate  people  who  have 
been  subject  to  that  training  or  who  are  in  the  process  of  train- 
ing, thus  ignoring  the  selective  influence  of  the  factor  itself  in 
original  nature.  For  instance,  to  study  the  value  of  high  school 
training  we  compare  those  in  training  with  those  who  have  never 
had  any ;  if  the  question  is  the  value  of  manual  training  or  Latin, 
again  the  comparison  is  made  between  those  who  have  had  it 
and  those  who  haven't.  To  find  out  the  influence  of  squalor 
and  misery,  people  living  in  the  slums  are  compared  with  those 
from  a  better  district.  In  each  case  the  fact  is  ignored  that  the 
original  natures  of  the  two  groups  examined  are  different  be- 
fore the  influence  of  the  element  in  question  was  brought  to 
bear.  Why  do  some  children  go  to  high  school  and  others  not? 
Why  do  some  choose  classical  courses  and  some  manual  training 
courses?  Why  are  some  people  found  in  the  slums  for  genera- 
tions ?  The  answer  in  each  case  is  the  same  —  the  original 
natures  are  different.     It  isn't  the  slums  make  the  people  nearly 


THE   SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES      159 

so  often  as  it  is  the  people  make  the  slums.  It  isn't  training  in 
Latin  that  makes  the  more  capable  man,  but  the  more  intel- 
lectual students,  because  of  tradition  and  possibly  enjoyment  of 
language  study,  choose  the  Latin.  It  is  unfair  to  measure  a 
factor  in  the  environment  and  give  it  credit  or  discredit  for 
results,  when  those  results  are  also  due  to  original  nature  as  well, 
which  has  not  been  allowed  for.  It  must  be  recognized  by  all 
those  working  in  this  field  that,  after  all,  man  to  some  extent 
selects  his  own  environment.  In  the  second  place,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  environment  will  influence  folks  differ- 
ently according  as  their  natures  are  different.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  environment  is  accountable  for  some  individual 
differences,  but  just  which  ones  and  to  what  extent  are  questions 
to  which  at  present  the  answers  are  unsatisfactory. 

The  investigations  which  have  been  carried  on  agree  that 
environment  is  not  so  influential  a  cause  for  individual  differences 
in  intellect  as  is  near  ancestry.  One  rather  interesting  line  of 
evidence  can  be  quoted  as  an  illustration.  If  individual  dif- 
ferences in  achievement  are  due  largely  to  lack  of  training  or 
to  poor  training,  then  to  give  the  same  amount  and  kind  of 
training  to  all  the  individuals  in  a  group  should  reduce  the  dif- 
ferences. If  such  practice  does  not  reduce  the  differences,  then 
it  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  differences  were  caused 
in  the  first  place  by  differences  in  training.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
equalizing  training  increases  the  differences.  The  superior  man 
becomes  more  superior,  the  inferior  is  left  further  behind  than 
ever.  A  common  occurrence  in  school  administration  bears 
out  this  conclusion  reached  by  experimental  means.  The  child 
who  skips  a  grade  is  ready  at  the  end  of  three  years  to  skip  again, 
and  the  child  who  fails  a  grade  is  likely  at  the  end  of  three  years 
to  fail  again.  Though  environment  seems  of  little  influence 
as  compared  with  near  ancestry  in  determining  intellectual 
ability  per  se,  yet  it  has  considerable  influence  in  determining 


i6o  HOW  TO  TEACH 

the  line  along  which  this  ability  is  to  manifest  itself.  The  fact 
that  between  1840-44,  9.4  per  cent  of  the  college  men  went  into 
teaching  as  a  profession  and  37.5  per  cent  into  the  ministry, 
while  between  1890-94,  25.4  per  cent  chose  the  former  and  only 
14  per  cent  the  latter,  can  be  accounted  for  only  on  the  basis 
of  environmental  influence  of  some  kind.^ 

Another  fact  concerning  the  influence  of  environment  is  that 
it  is  very  much  more  effective  in  influencing  morality  than 
intellect.  Morality  is  the  outcome  of  the  proper  direction  of 
capacities  and  tendencies  possessed  by  the  individual,  and  there- 
fore is  extremely  susceptible  to  environmental  influences.  We 
are  all  familiar  with  the  differences  in  moral  standards  of 
different  social  groups.  One  boy  may  become  a  bully  and 
another  considerate  of  the  rights  of  others,  one  learns  to  steal 
and  another  to  be  honest,  one  to  lie  and  another  to  be  truthful, 
because  of  the  influence  of  their  environments  rather  than 
on  account  of  differences  in  their  original  natures.  \  We  are 
beginning  to  recognize  the  importance  of  environment  in  moral 
training  in  the  provisions  made  to  protect  children  from  im- 
moral influences,  in  the  opportunities  afforded  for  the  right 
sort  of  recreation,  and  even  in  the  removal  of  children  from  the 
custody  of  their  parents  when  the  environment  is  extremely 
unfavorable. 

Though  changes  in  method  and  ideals  cannot  reduce  the 
differences  between  individuals  in  the  intellectual  field  to  any 
marked  extent,  such  changes  can  raise  the  level  of  achievement 
of  the  whole  group.  For  instance,  more  emphasis  on  silent  read- 
ing may  make  the  reading  ability  of  a  whole  school  20  per  cent 
better,  while  leaving  the  distance  between  the  best  and  worst 
reader  in  the  school  the  same.  /  Granting  that  heredity,  original 
nature,  is  the  primary  cause  of  individual  differences  in  intel- 
lect (aside  from  those  sex  differences  mentioned)  there  remains  for 
^  Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  304. 


THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES      i6i 

environment,  education  in  all  its  forms,  the  tremendous  task  of : 
First,  providing  conditions  favorable  for  nervous  health  and 
growth;  second,  providing  conditions  which  stimulate  useful 
capacities  and  inhibit  futile  or  harmful  capacities;  third, 
providing  conditions  which  continually  raise  the  absolute 
achievement  of  the  group  and  of  the  race;  fourth,  providing 
conditions  that  will  meet  the  varying  original  equipments; 
fifth,  assuming  primary  responsibility  for  development  along 
moral  and  social  lines. 

/  Concerning  those  individual  differences  of  which  heredity  is 
the  controlling  cause,  two  facts  are  worthy  of  note.  First,  that 
human  nature  is  very  highly  specialized  and  that  inheritance 
may  be  in  terms  of  special  abilities  or  capacities.  For  instance, 
artistic,  musical,  or  linguistic  ability,  statesmanship,  power  in  the 
field  of  poetry,  may  be  handed  down  from  one  generation  to 
the  next.  This  also  means  that  two  brothers  may  be  extremely 
alike  along  some  lines  and  extremely  different  along  others. 
/  Second,  that  there  seems  to  be  positive  combinations  between 
certain  mental  traits,  whereby  the  presence  of  one  insures  the 
presence  of  the  other  to  a  greater  degree  than  chance  would 
explain.  For  instance,  the  quick  learner  is  slow  in  forgetting, 
imagery  in  one  field  implies  power  to  image  in  others,  a  high 
degree  of  concentration  goes  with  superior  breadth,  efficiency  in 
artistic  lines  is  more  often  correlated  with  superiority  in  politics 
or  generalship  or  science  than  the  reverse,  ability  to  deal  with 
abstract  data  implies  unusual  power  to  deal  with  the  concrete 
situation.  In  fact,  as  far  as  exact  measures  go,  negative  corre- 
lations between  capacities,  powers,  efficiencies,  are  extremely 
rare,  and,  when  they  occur,  can  be  traced  to  the  influence  of  some 
environmental  factor. 

Individuals  differ  from  each  other  to  a  much  greater  degree 
than  has  been  allowed  for  in  our  public  education.  The  com- 
mon school  system  is  constructed  on  the  theory  that  children 


i62  '  HOW  TO  TEACH 

are  closely  similar  in  their  abilities,  type  of  mental  make-up,  and 
capacities  in  any  given  line.  Experimentation  shows  each  one 
of  these  presuppositions  to  be  false. \  So  far  as  general  ability 
goes,  children  vary  from  the  genius  to  the  feeble-minded  with  all 
the  grades  between,  even  in  the  same  school  class.  This  gra- 
dation is  a  continuous  one  —  there  are  no  breaks  in  the  human 
race.  Children  cannot  be  grouped  into  the  very  bright,  bright, 
mediocre,  poor,  very  poor,  failures  —  each  group  being  distinct 
from  any  other.  The  shading  from  one  to  the  other  of  these 
classes  is  gradual,  there  is  no  sharp  break.  Not  only  is  this 
true,  but  a  child  may  be  considered  very  bright  along  one 
line  and  mediocre  along  another.  Brilliancy  or  poverty  in 
intellect  does  not  act  as  a  unit  and  apply  to  all  lives  equally. 
The  high  specialization  of  mental  powers  makes  unevenness 
in  achievement  the  common  occurrence.  /  Within  any  school 
grade  that  has  been  tested,  even  when  the  gradings  are  as  close 
as  those  secured  by  term  promotions,  it  has  been  found  in  any 
subject  there  are  children  who  do  from  two  to  five  times  as  well 
as  others,  and  from  two  to  five  times  as  much  as  others.  Of 
course  this  great  variation  means  an  overlapping  of  grades  on 
each  side.  In  Dr.  Bonser's  test  of  757  children  in  reasoning 
he  found  that  90  per  cent  of  the  6A  pupils  were  below  the  best 
pupils  of  4A  grade  and  that  4  per  cent  of  6A  pupils  were  below 
the  mid-pupils  of  the  4A,  and  that  the  best  of  the  4A  pupils 
made  a  score  three  times  as  high  as  the  worst  pupils  of  6A. 
/  Not  only  is  this  tremendous  difference  in  ability  found  among 
children  of  the  same  class,  but  the  same  difference  exists  in  rate 
of  development.  Some  children  can  cover  the  same  ground 
in  one  half  or  one  third  the  time  as  others  and  do  it  better.  "^ 
Witness  the  children  already  quoted  who,  skipping  a  grade,  were 
ready  at  the  end  of  three  years  to  skip  again.  Variability, 
not  uniformity,  is  what  characterizes  the  abilities  arid  rate  of 
intellectual  growth  of  children  in  the  schools,  and  these  differ- 


THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES      163 

ences,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  are  caused  primarily  by 
a  difference  in  original  nature. 

There  is  also  great  difference  between  the  general  mental 
make-up  of  children  —  a  difference  in  type.  There  is  the  child 
who  excels  in  deaHng  with  abstract  ideas.  He  usually  has 
power  also  in  dealing  with  the  concrete,  but  his  chief  interest 
is  in  the  abstract.  He  is  the  one  who  does  splendid  work  in 
mathematics,  formal  grammar,  the  abstract  phases  of  the 
sciences.  Then  there  is  the  child  who  is  a  thinker  too,  but 
his  best  work  is  done  when  he  is  dealing  with  a  concrete  situa- 
tion. \  Unusual  or  involved  applications  of  principles  disturb 
him.  So  long  as  his  work  is  couched  in  terms  of  the  concrete, 
he  can  succeed,  but  if  that  is  replaced  by  the  x^  y,  z  elements,  he 
is  prone  to  fail.  There  is  another  type  of  child  —  the  one  who 
has  the  executive  ability,  the  child  of  action.  True,  he  thinks, 
too,  but  his  forte  is  in  control  of  people  and  of  things.  He  is 
the  one  who  manages  the  athletic  team,  runs  the  school  paper, 
takes  charge  of  the  elections,  and  so  on.  For  principles  to  be 
grasped  he  must  be  able  to  put  them  into  practice.  '  The  fourth 
type  is  the  feehng  type,  the  child  who  excels  in  appreciative 
power.  As  has  been  urged  so  many  times  before,  these  types 
have  boundaries  that  are  hazy  and  ill  defined ;  they  overlap  in 
many  cases.  Some  children  are  of  a  well-defined  mixed  type, 
and  most  children  have  something  of  each  of  the  four  abilities 
characteristic  of  the  types.  Still  it  is  true  that  in  looking  over 
a  class  of  children  these  types  emerge,  not  pure,  but  controlled 
by  the  dominant  characteristics  mentioned. 
/  The  same  variation  is  found  among  any  group  of  children  if 
they  are  tested  along  one  line,  such  as  memory.  Some  have 
desultory,  some  rote,  some  logical  memories  y  s^we^have  imme- 
diate memories,  others  the  permanent  type.}  In  imagery,  some 
have  principally  productive  imagination,  opers  the  matter-of- 
fact  reproductive;    some  deal  largely  with  object  images  that 


164  HOW  TO  TEACH 

are  vivid  and  clear-cut,  others  fail  almost  entirely  with  this 
type,  but  use  word  images  with  great  facihty.  In  conduct, 
some  are  hesitating  and  uncertain,  others  just  the  reverse; 
some  very  open  to  suggestions,  others  scarcely  touched  at  all 
by  it;  some  can  act  in  accordance  with  principle,  others  only 
in  terms  of  particular  associations  with  a  definite  situation^ 
So  one  might  run  the  whole  gamut  of  human  traits,  and  in  each 
one  any  group  of  individuals  will  vary :  in  attention,  in  think- 
ing, in  ideals,  in  habits,  in  interests,  in  sense  discrimination,  in 
emotions,  and  so  on.  This  is  one  of  the  greatest  contributions 
of  experimental  psychology  of  the  past  ten  years,  the  tremen- 
dous differences  between  people  along  all  lines,  physical  as  well 
as  mental. 

It  is  lack  of  recognition  of  such  differences  that  makes  pos- 
sible such  a  Kst  of  histories  of  misfits  as  Swift  quotes  in  his  chap- 
ter on  Standards  of  Human  Power  in  ''Mind  in  the  Making.'* 
^  Individual  differences  exist,  education  cannot  eliminate  them, 
they  are  innate,  due  to  original  nature.  Education  that  does 
not  recognize  them  and  plan  for  them  is  wasteful  and,  what  is 
worse,  is  criminal. 

The  range  of  ability  possessed  by  children  of  the  same  grade 
in  the  subjects  commonly  taught  seems  not  always  to  be  clear  in 
the  minds  of  teachers.  It  will  be  discussed  at  greater  length 
in  another  chapter,  but  it  is  important  for  the  consideration  of 
individual  differences  to  present  some  data  at  this  time.  If 
we  rate  the  quality  of  work  done  in  English  composition  from 
10  to  100  per  cent,  being  careful  to  evaluate  as  accurately  as 
possible  the  merit  of  the  composition  written,  we  will  find  for  a 
seventh  and  an  eighth  grade  a  condition  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing table : 


THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES      165 


Quality  of  Composition  Grades^ 

No.  of  Pupils 

Rated  at  10 21 

Rated  at  20  6        6 

Rated  at  30  8        8 

Rated  at  40  7        8 

Rated  at  50  2        4 

Rated  at  60  i         i 

Rated  at  70  i         i 

Rated  at  80  i         i 

Rated  at  90  i         i 

The  table  reads  as  follows :  two  pupils  in  the  seventh  grade 
and  one  in  the  eighth  wrote  compositions  rated  at  10 ;  six 
seventh-grade  and  six  eighth-grade  pupils  wrote  compositions 
rated  at  20,  and  so  on  for  the  whole  table. 

A  similar  condition  of  affairs  is  indicated  if  we  ask  how  many 
of  a  given  type  of  addition  problems  are  solved  correctly  in 
eight  minutes  by  a  fifth-  and  a  sixth-grade  class. 

Number  of  Grades 

Problems  5  6 

No.  of  Pupils 

0  2  3 

1        6        6 

2        6        6 

3  .     ." 6        6 

4  4  5 

5  4  5 

6  3  4 

7  I  2 

8  I  I 

9        I         I 

In  like  manner,  if  we  measure  the  quaHty  of  work  done  in 
penmanship  for  a  fifth  and  sixth  grade,  with  a  system  of  scoring 


1 66  HOW  TO  TEACH 

that  ranks  the  penmanship  in  equal  steps  from  a  quality  which 
is  ranked  four  up  to  a  quality  which  is  ranked  eighteen,  we  find 
the  following  results : 

Quality  or  Penmanship  Grades^ 

No.  oj  Pupils 

Rated  at    4  5  6 

Rated  at    5  i  i 

Rated  at    6  o  o 

Rated  at    7  2  4 

Rated  at    8 10  4 

Rated  at    9  12  i 

Rated  at  10  3  6 

Rated  at  1 1  3  8 

Rated  at  12  3  3 

Rated  at  13 i  2 

Rated  at  14  i  i 

Rated  at  1 5  o  i 

Rated  at  16  i  i 

Rated  at  17  o  o 

Rated  at  18  '.  o  o 

Results  similar  to  those  recorded  above  will  be  found  if  any 
accurate  measurement  is  made  of  the  knowledge  possessed  by 
children  in  history  or  in  geography,  or  of  the  ability  to  apply 
or  derive  principles  in  physics  or  in  chemistry,  or  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  vocabulary  in  Latin  or  in  German,  and  the  like. 

All  such  facts  indicate  clearly  the  necessity  for  differen- 
tiating our  work  for  the  group  of  children  who  are  classified  as 
belonging  to  one  grade.  Under  the  older  and  simpler  form  of 
school  organization,  the  one-room  rural  school,  it  was  not 
uncommon  for  children  to  recite  in  one  class  in  arithmetic,  in 
another  in  geography  or  history,  and  in  possibly  still  another 
in  English.  In  our  more  highly  organized  school  systems, 
with  the  attempt  to  have  children  pass  regularly  from  grade  to 


THE   SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES      167 

grade  at  each  promotion  period,  we  have  in  some  measure  pro- 
vided for  individual  differences  through  allowing  children  to 
skip  a  grade,  or  not  infrequently  by  having  them  repeat  the 
work  of  a  grade.  In  still  other  cases  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  adapt  the  work  of  the  class  to  the  needs  and  capacities  of  the 
children  by  dividing  any  class  group  into  two  or  more  groups, 
especially  in  those  subjects  in  which  children  seem  to  have  great- 
est difficulty.  Teachers  who  are  alive  to  the  problem  presented 
have  striven  to  adjust  their  work  to  different  members  of  the 
class  by  varying  the  assignments,  and  in  some  cases  by  excus- 
ing from  the  exercises  in  which  they  are  already  proficient  the 
abler  pupils. 

Whatever  adjustment  the  school  may  be  able  to  make  in 
terms  of  providing  special  classes  for  those  who  are  mentally 
or  physically  deficient,  or  for  those  who  are  especially  capable, 
there  will  always  be  found  in  any  given  group  a  wide  variation 
in  achievement  and  in  capacity.  Group  teaching  and  individ- 
ual instruction  will  always  be  required  of  teachers  who  would 
adapt  their  work  to  the  varying  capacities  of  children.  A 
period  devoted  to  supervised  study  during  which  those  children 
who  are  less  able  may  receive  special  help,  and  those  who  are 
of  exceptional  ability  be  expected  to  make  unusual  preparation 
both  in  extent  and  in  quality  of  work  done,  may  contribute  much 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  school.  As  paradoxical  as  the  state- 
ment may  seem,  it  is  true  that  the  most  retarded  children  in  our 
school  systems  are  the  brightest.  Expressed  in  another  way, 
it  can  be  proved  that  the  more  capable  children  have  already 
achieved  in  the  subjects  in  which  they  are  taught  more 
than  those  who  are  two  or  three  grades  farther  advanced.  Pos- 
sibly the  greatest  contribution  which  teachers  can  make  to  the 
development  of  efficiency  upon  the  part  of  the  children  with 
whom  they  work  is  to  be  found  in  the  special  attention  which 
is  given  to  capable  children  with  respect  to  both  the  quantity 


i68  HOW  TO  TEACH 

and  quality  of  work  demanded  of  them,  together  with  provision 
for  having  them  segregated  in  special  classes  or  passed  through 
the  school  system  with  greater  rapidity  than  is  now  common,^ 
In  an  elementary  school  with  which  the  writer  is  acquainted, 
and  in  which  there  were  four  fifth  grades,  it  was  discovered 
during  the  past  year  that  in  one  of  these  fifth  grades  in  which 
the  brighter  children  had  been  put  they  had  achieved  more  in 
terms  of  ability  to  solve  problems  in  arithmetic,  in  their  knowl- 
edge of  history  and  geography,  in  the  quality  of  English  compo- 
sition they  wrote,  and  the  like,  than  did  the  children  in  any 
one  of  the  sixth  grades.  In  this  school  this  particular  fifth 
grade  was  promoted  to  the  seventh  grade  for  the  following  year. 
Many  such  examples  could  be  found  in  schools  organized  with 
more  than  one  grade  at  work  on  the  same  part  of  the  school 
course,  if  care  were  taken  to  segregate  children  in  terms  of  their 
capacity.  And  even  where  there  is  only  one  teacher  per  grade, 
or  where  one  teacher  teaches  two  or  three  grades,  it  should  be 
found  possible  constantly  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  children 
of  more  than  ordinary  ability. 

;'  The  movement  throughout  the  United  States  for  the  organ- 
ization of  junior  high  schools  (these  schools  commonly  include 
the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  school  years)  is  to  be  looked  upon 
primarily  as  an  attempt  to  adjust  the  work  of  our  schools  to  the 
individual  capacities  of  boys  and  girls  and  to  their  varying 
vocational  outlook.  Such  a  school,  if  it  is  to  meet  this  de- 
mand for  adjustment  to  individual  differences,  must  offer  a 
variety  of  courses.  Among  the  courses  offered  in  a  typical 
junior  high  school  is  one  which  leads  directly  to  the  high  school. 
In  this  course  provision  is  made  for  the  beginning  of  a  foreign 
language,  of  algebra,  and,  in  some  cases,  of  some  other  high  school 
subject  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  years.  In  another  course 
emphasis  is  placed  upon  work  in  industrial  or  household  arts  4n 
the  expectation  that  work  in  these  fields  may  lead  to  a  higher 


THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES      169 

degree  of  efficiency  in  later  vocational  training,  and  possibly  to 
the  retention  of  children  during  this  period  who  might  otherwise 
see  little  or  no  meaning  in  the  traditional  school  course.  The 
best  junior  high  schools  are  offering  in  the  industrial  course  a 
variety  of  shop  work.  In  some  cases  machine  shop  practice, 
sheet  metal  working,  woodworking,  forging,  printing,  painting, 
electrical  wiring,  and  the  like  are  offered  for  boys ;  and  cook- 
ing, sewing,  including  dressmaking  and  designing,  millinery, 
drawing,  with  emphasis  upon  design  and  interior  decoration, 
music,  machine  operating,  pasting,  and  the  like  are  provided 
for  girls.  Another  type  of  course  has  provided  for  training 
which  looks  toward  commercial  work,  even  though  it  is  recog- 
nized that  the  most  adequate  commercial  training  may  require 
a  longer  period  of  preparation.  In  some  schools  special  work 
in  agriculture  is  offered. 

Our  schools  cannot  be  considered  as  satisfactorily  organized 
until  we  make  provision  for  every  boy  or  girl  to  work  up  to  the 
maximum  of  his  capacity.  The  one  thing  that  a  teacher  cannot 
do  is  to  make  all  of  his  pupils  equal  in  achievement.  Whatever 
adjustment  may  have  been  made  in  terms  of  special  classes  or 
segregation  in  terms  of  ability,  the  teacher  must  always  face 
the  problem  of  varying  the  assignment  to  meet  the  capacities 
of  individual  children,  and  she  ought,  wherever  it  is  possible, 
especially  to  encourage  the  abler  children  to  do  work  commen- 
surate with  their  abihty,  and  to  provide,  as  far  as  is  possible, 
for  the  rapid  advancement  of  these  children  through  the  various 
stages  of  the  school  system. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  principal  causes  of  differences  in  abilities  or  in  achieve- 
ment among  school  children  ? 

2.  What,  if  any,  of  the  differences  noticed  among  children  may  be 
attributed  to  sex  ? 


I70  HOW  TO  TEACH 

3.  Are  any  of  the  sex  differences  noticeable  in  the  achievements  of  the 
school  children  with  whom  you  are  acquainted  ? 

4.  To  what  extent  is  maturity  a  cause  of  individual  differences  ? 

5.  What  evidence  is  available  to  show  the  fallacy  of  the  common  idea 
that  children  of  the  same  age  are  equal  in  ability  ? 

6.  How  important  is  heredity  in  determining  the  achievement  of  men 
and  women  ? 

7.  To  what  extent,  if  any,  would  you  be  interested  in  the  immediate 
heredity  of  the  children  in  your  class  ?    Why  ? 

8.  To  what  extent  is  the  environment  in  which  children  live  responsible 
for  their  achievements  in  school  studies? 

9.  What  may  be  expected  in  the  way  of  achievement  from  two  children 
of  widely  different  heredity  but  of  equal  training  ? 

10.  For  what  factor  in  education  is  the  environment  most  responsible? 
Why? 

11.  If  you  grant  that  original  nature  is  the  primary  cause  of  individual 
differences  in  intellectual  achievements,  how  would  you  define  the  work  of 
the  school? 

12.  Why  are  you  not  justified  in  grouping  children  as  bright,  ordinary, 
and  stupid  ? 

13.  Will  a  boy  who  has  unusual  abiHty  in  music  certainly  be  superior  in 
all  other  subjects  ? 

14.  Why  are  children  who  skip  a  grade  apt  to  be  able  to  skip  again  at 
the  end  of  two  or  three  years  ? 

15.  Are  you  able  to  distinguish  differences  in  type  of  mind  (or  general 
mental  make-up)  among  the  children  in  your  classes?     Give  illustrations. 

16.  What  changes  in  school  organization  would  you  advocate  for  the 
sake  of  adjusting  the  teaching  done  to  the  varying  capacities  of  children? 

17.  How  should  a  teacher  adjust  his  work  to  the  individual  differences 
in  capacity  or  in  achievement  represented  by  the  usual  class  group  ? 


XI 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL  SOCIAL  CONDUCT 

Morality  has  been  defined  in  many  ways.  It  has  been  called 
"a  regulation  and  control  of  immediate  promptings  of  impulses 
in  conformity  with  some  prescribed  conduct"  ;  as  "the  organiza- 
tion of  activity  with  reference  to  a  system  of  fundamental 
values."  Dewey  says,  "Interest  in  community  welfare,  an  in- 
terest that  is  intellectual  and  practical,  as  well  as  emotional  —  an 
interest,  that  is  to  say,  in  perceiving  whatever  makes  for  social 
order  and  progress,  and  in  carrying  these  principles  into  execu- 
tion—  is  the  moral  habit."  ^  Palmer  defines  it  as  "the  choice 
by  the  individual  of  habits  of  conduct  that  are  for  the  good  of 
the  race."  All  these  definitions  point  to  control  on  the  part 
of  the  individual  as  one  essential  of  morality. 

Morality  is  not,  then,  a  matter  primarily  of  mere  conduct. 
It  involves  conduct,  but  the  essence  of  morahty  lies  deeper  than 
the  act  itself ;  motive,  choice,  are  involved  as  well.  Mere  law- 
abiding  is  not  morality  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  One 
may  keep  the  laws  merely  as  a  matter  of  blind  habit.  A  prisoner 
in  jail  keeps  the  laws.  A  baby  of  four  keeps  the  laws,  but  in 
neither  case  could  such  conduct  be  called  moral.  In  neither  of 
these  cases  do  we  find  "control"  by  the  individual  of  impulses, 
nor  "conscious  choice"  of  conduct.  In  the  former  compulsion 
was  the  controUing  force,  and  in  the  second  blind  habit  based 
on  personal  satisfaction.  Conduct  which  outwardly  conforms 
to  social  law  and  social  progress  is  unmoral  rather  than  moral. 

^  Moral  Principles  in  Education,  p.  17. 
171 


172  HOW  TO  TEACH 

A  moment's  consideration  will  suffice  to  convince  any  one  that 
the  major  part  of  conduct  is  of  this  non-moral  type.  This  is 
true  of  adults  and  necessarily  true  of  children.  As  Hall  says, 
most  of  the  supposedly  moral  conduct  of  the  majority  of  men  is 
blind  habit,  not  thoughtful  choosing.  In  so  far  as  we  are  ruled 
by  custom,  by  tradition,  in  so  far  as  we  do  as  the  books  or  the 
preacher  says,  or  do  as  we  see  others  do,  without  principles  to 
guide  us,  without  thinking,  to  that  extent  the  conduct  is  likely 
to  be  non-moral.  This  is  the  characteristic  reaction  of  the 
majority  of  people.  We  believe  as  our  fathers  believed,  we  vote 
the  same  ticket,  hold  in  horror  the  same  practices,  look  askance 
on  the  same  doctrines,  cling  to  the  same  traditions.  Morality, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  rationalized  conduct.  Now  this  non-moral 
conduct  is  valuable  so  far  as  it  goes.  It  is  a  conservative  force, 
making  for  stability,  but  it  has  its  dangers.  It  is  antagonistic 
to  progress.  So  long  as  the  conditions  surrounding  the  non- 
moral  individual  remain  unchanged,  he  will  be  successful  in 
dealing  with  them,  but  if  conditions  change,  if  he  is  confronted 
by  a  new  situation,  if  strong  temptation  comes,  he  has  nothing 
with  which  to  meet  it,  for  his  conduct  was  blind.  It  is  the  person 
whose  conduct  is  non-moral  that  suffers  collapse  on  the  one 
hand,  or  becomes  a  bigot  on  the  other,  when  criticism  attacks 
what  he  held  as  true  or  right.  Morality  requires  that  men  have 
a  reason  for  the  faith  that  is  in  them. 

In  the  second  place,  morality  is  conduct.  Ideals,  ideas,  wishes, 
desires,  all  may  lead  to  morality,  but  in  so  far  as  they  are  not 
expressed  in  conduct,  to  that  extent  they  do  not  come  under 
the  head  of  morality.  One  may  express  the  sublimest  idea,  may 
claim  the  highest  ideals,  and  be  immoral.  Conduct  is  the  only 
test  of  morality,  just  as  it  is  the  ultimate  test  of  character.  Not 
only  is  morality  judged  in  terms  of  conduct,  but  it  is  judged 
according  as  the  conduct  is  consistent.  "Habits  of  conduct" 
make  for  morality  or  immorality.     It  is  not  the  isolated  act  of 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL  SOCIAL   CONDUCT    173 

heroism  that  makes  a  man  moral,  or  the  single  unsocial  act  that 
makes  a  man  immoral.  The  particular  act  may  be  moral  or 
immoral,  and  the  person  be  just  the  reverse.  It  is  the  organiza- 
tion of  activity,  it  is  the  habits  a  man  has  that  places  him  in 
one  category  or  the  other. 

In  the  third  place,  morality  is  a  matter  of  individual  respon- 
sibility. It  is  ''choice  by  the  individual,"  the  "perceiving  what- 
ever makes  for  social  order  and  progress."  No  one  can  choose 
for  another,  no  one  can  perceive  for  another.  The  burden  of 
choosing  for  the  good  of  the  group  rests  on  the  individual,  it 
cannot  be  shifted  to  society  or  the  Church,  or  any  other  institu- 
tion. Each  individual  is  moral  or  not  according  as  he  lives 
up  to  the  light  that  he  has,  according  as  he  carries  into  execution 
principles  that  are  for  the  good  of  his  race.  A  particular  act, 
then,  may  be,  moral  for  one  individual  and  immoral  for  another, 
and  non-moral  for  still  another. 

To  go  off  into  the  forest  to  die  if  one  is  diseased  may  be  a  moral 
act  for  a  savage  in  central  Africa ;  but  for  a  civilized  man  to  do  so 
would  probably  be  immoral  because  of  his  greater  knowledge. 
To  give  liquor  to  babies  to  quiet  them  may  be  a  non-moral  act 
on  the  part  of  ignorant  immigrants  from  Russia ;  but  for  a  trained 
physician  to  do  so  would  be  immoral.  Morality,  then,  is  a  per- 
sonal matter,  and  the  responsibility  for  it  rests  on  the  individual. 

Of  course  this  makes  possible  the  setting  up  of  individual 
opinion  as  to  what  is  for  the  good  of  the  group  in  opposition  to 
tradition  and  custom.  This  is,  of  course,  dangerous  if  it  is 
mere  opinion  or  if  it  is  carried  to  an  extreme.  Few  men  have 
the  gift  of  seeing  what  makes  for  social  well-being  beyond  that 
of  the  society  of  thoughtful  people  of  their  time.  And  yet  if  a 
man  has  the  insight,  if  his  investigations  point  to  a  greater  good 
for  the  group  from  doing  something  which  is  different  from 
the  standards  held  by  his  peers,  then  morality  requires  that  he  do 
his  utmost  to  bring  about  such  changes.     If  it  is  borne  in  mind 


174  HOW  TO  TEACH 

that  every  man  is  the  product  of  his  age  and  that  it  is  evolution, 
not  revolution,  that  is  constructive,  this  essential  of  true  morality 
will  not  seem  so  dangerous.  All  the  reformers  the  world  has 
ever  seen,  all  the  pioneers  in  social  service,  have  been  men  who, 
living  up  to  their  individual  responsibility,  have  acted  as  they 
believed  for  society's  best  good  in  ways  that  were  not  in  accord 
with  the  beliefs  of  the  majority  of  their  time.  Shirking  responsi- 
bility, not  living  up  to  what  one  believes  is  right,  is  immoral  just 
as  truly  as  stealing  from  one's  neighbor. 

The  fourth  essential  in  moral  conduct  is  that  it  be  for  the  social 
good.  It  is  the  governing  of  impulses,  the  inhibition  of  desires 
that  violate  the  good  of  the  group,  and  the  choice  of  conduct  that 
forwards  its  interests.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  group  and 
the  individual  are  set  over  against  each  other,  and  the  individual 
must  give  way.  It  means,  rather,  that  certain  impulses,  tenden- 
cies, motives,  of  the  individual  are  chosen  instead  of  others ;  it 
means  that  the  individual  only  becomes  his  fullest  self  as  he 
becomes  a  social  being;  it  means  that  what  is  for  the  good  of 
the  group  in  the  long  run  is  for  the  good  of  the  units  that  make 
up  that  group.  Morality,  then,  is  a  relative  term.  What  is  of 
highest  moral  value  in  one  age  may  be  immoral  in  another  be- 
cause of  change  in  social  conditions.  As  society  progresses, 
as  different  elements  come  to  the  front  because  of  the  march  of 
civilization,  so  the  acts  that  are  detrimental  to  the  good  of  the 
whole  must  change.  To-day  slander  and  stealing  a  man's  good 
name  are  quite  as  immoral  as  stealing  his  property.  Acts  that 
injure  the  mental  and  spiritual  development  of  the  group  are 
even  more  immoral  than  those  which  interfere  with  the  physical 
well-being. 

A  strong  will  is  not  necessarily  indicative  of  a  good  character, 
A  strong  will  may  be  directed  towards  getting  what  gives  pleasure 
to  oneself,  irrespective  of  the  effect  on  other  people.  It  is  the 
goal,  the  purpose  with  which  it  is  exercised,  that  makes  a  man 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL   SOCIAL   CONDUCT    175 

with  a  strong  will  a  moral  man  or  an  immoral  man.  Only  when 
one's  will  is  used  to  put  into  execution  those  principles  that  will 
bring  about  social  progress  is  it  productive  of  a  good  character. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  morality  can  be  discussed  only  in  connec- 
tion with  group  activity.  It  is  the  individual  as  a  part  of  a 
group,  acting  in  connection  with  it,  that  makes  the  situation  a 
moral  one.  Individual  morality  is  discussed  by  some  authors, 
but  common  opinion  limits  the  term  to  the  use  that  has  been  dis- 
cussed in  the  preceding  paragraphs. 

If  social  well-being  is  taken  in  its  broadest  sense,  then  all  moral 
behavior  is  social,  and  all  social  behavior  comes  under  one  of  the 
three  types  of  morality.  Training  for  citizenship,  for  social 
efficiency,  for  earning  a  livelihood,  all  have  a  moral  aspect.  It 
is  only  as  the  individual  is  trained  to  live  a  complete  life  as  one 
of  a  group  that  he  can  be  trained  to  be  fully  moral,  and  training 
for  complete  social  living  must  include  training  in  morality. 
Hence  for  the  remainder  of  this  discussion  the  two  terms  will  be 
considered  as  synonymous.  We  hear  it  sometimes  said,  ''train- 
ing in  morals  and  manners,"  as  if  the  two  were  distinct,  and 
yet  a  full  realization  of  what  is  for  social  betterment  along  emo- 
tional and  intellectual  lines  must  include  a  realization  of  the 
need  of  manners.  Of  course  there  are  degrees  of  morality  or 
immorality  according  as  the  act  influences  society  much  or 
little  —  all  crimes  are  not  equally  odious,  nor  all  virtues  equally 
commendable,  but  any  act  that  touches  the  well-being  of  the 
group  must  come  under  this  category. 

From  the  foregoing  paragraph,  the  logical  conclusion  would  be 
that  there  is  no  instinct  or  inborn  tendency  that  is  primarily  and 
distinctly  moral  as  over  against  those  that  are  social.  That  is 
the  commonly  accepted  belief  to-day.  There  is  no  moral  in- 
stinct. Morality  finds  its  root  in  the  original  nature  of  man, 
but  not  in  a  single  moral  instinct.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
outgrowth  of  a  number  of  instincts  all  of  which  have  been  listed 


176  HOW  TO  TEACH 

under  the  head  of  the  social  instinct.  Man  has  in  his  original 
equipment  tendencies  that  will  make  him  a  moral  individual  if 
they  are  developed,  but  they  are  complex,  not  simple.  Some  of 
these  social  tendencies  which  are  at  the  root  of  moral  conduct  are 
gregariousness,  desire  for  approval,  dislike  of  scorn,  kindUness, 
attention  to  human  beings,  imitation,  and  others.  Now,  al- 
though man  possesses  these  tendencies  as  a  matter  of  original 
equipment,  he  also  possesses  tendencies  which  are  opposed  to 
these,  tendencies  which  lead  to  the  advancement  of  self,  rather 
than  the  well-being  of  the  group.  Some  of  these  are  fighting, 
mastery,  rivalry,  jealousy,  ownership.  Which  of  these  sets  of 
tendencies  is  developed  and  controls  the  life  of  the  individual  is  a 
matter  of  training  and  environment.  In  the  last  chapter  it 
was  pointed  out  that  morality  was  much  more  susceptible  to 
environmental  influences  than  intellectual  achievement,  because 
it  was  much  more  a  direction  and  guidance  of  capacities  and 
tendencies  possessed  by  every  one.  One's  character  is  largely 
a  product  of  one's  environment.  In  proof  of  this,  read  the  re- 
ports of  reform  schools,  and  the  like.  Children  of  criminal 
parents,  removed  from  the  environment  of  crime,  grow  up  into 
moral  persons.  The  pair  of  Jukes  who  left  the  Juke  clan  lost 
their  criminal  habits  and  brought  up  a  family  of  children  who 
were  not  immoral.  Education  cannot  produce  geniuses,  but 
it  can  produce  men  and  women  whose  chief  concern  is  the  well- 
being  of  the  group. 

From  a  psychological  point  of  view  the  "choice  by  the  individ- 
ual of  habits  of  conduct  that  are  for  the  good  of  the  group"  in- 
volves three  considerations  :  First,  the  elements  implied  in  such 
conduct;  second,  the  stages  of  development;  third,  the  laws 
governing  this  development.  First,  moral  conduct  involves  the 
use  of  habits,  but  these  must  be  rational  habits,  so  it  involves 
the  power  to  think  and  judge  in  order  to  choose.  But  thinking 
that  shall  result  in  the  choice  of  habits  that  are  for  the  well-being 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL  SOCIAL  CONDUCT    177 

of  the  group  must  use  knowledge.  The  individual  must  have 
facts  and  standards  at  his  disposal  by  means  of  which  he  may 
evaluate  the  possible  lines  of  action  presented.  Further,  an 
individual  may  know  intellectually  what  is  right  and  moral  and 
yet  not  care.  The  interest,  the  emotional  appeal,  may  be  lack- 
ing, hence  he  must  have  ideals  to  which  he  has  given  his  alle- 
giance, which  will  force  him  to  put  into  practice  what  his  knowl- 
edge tells  him  is  right.  And  then,  having  decided  what  is 
for  the  social  good  and  having  the  desire  to  carry  it  out,  the 
moral  man  must  be  able  to  put  it  into  execution.  He  must  have 
the  ^'will  power."  Morality,  then,  is  an  extremely  complex 
matter,  involving  all  the  powers  of  the  human  being,  intellectual, 
emotional,  and  volitional  —  involving  the  cooperation  of  hered- 
ity and  environment.  It  is  evident  that  conduct  that  is  at  so 
high  a  level,  involving  experience,  powers  of  judgment,  and  con- 
trol, cannot  be  characteristic  of  the  immature  individual,  but 
must  come  after  years  of  growth,  if  at  all.  Therefore  we  find 
stages  of  development  towards  moral  conduct. 

The  first  stage  of  development,  which  lasts  up  into  the  pre- 
adolescent  years,  is  the  non-moral  stage.  The  time  when  a 
child  may  conform  outwardly  to  moral  law,  but  only  as  a  result 
of  blind  habit  —  not  as  a  result  of  rational  choice.  It  is  then 
that  the  little  child  conforms  to  his  environment,  reflecting  the 
characters  of  the  people  by  whom  he  is  surrounded.  Right  to 
him  means  what  those  about  him  approve  and  what  brings  him 
satisfaction.  If  stealing  and  lying  meet  with  approval  from  the 
people  about  him,  they  are  right  to  him.  To  steal  and  be  caught 
is  wrong  to  the  average  child  of  the  streets,  because  that  brings 
punishment  and  annoyance.  He  has  no  standards  of  judging 
other  than  the  example  of  others  and  his  own  satisfaction  and 
annoyance.  The  non-moral  period,  then,  is  characterized  by 
the  formation  of  habits  —  which  outwardly  conform  to  moral 
law,  or  are  contrary  to  it,  according  as  his  environment  directs. 


178  HOW  TO  TEACH 

The  need  to  form  habits  that  do  conform,  that  are  for  the  social 
good,  is  evident.  By  having  many  habits  of  this  kind  formed  in 
early  childhood,  truthfulness,  consideration  for  others,  respect 
for  poverty,  promptness,  regularity,  taking  responsibility,  and 
so  on,  the  dice  are  weighted  in  favor  of  the  continuation  of  such 
conduct  when  reason  controls.  The  child  has  then  only  to  en- 
large his  view,  build  up  his  principles  in  accord  with  conduct 
already  in  operation  —  he  needs  only  to  rationalize  what  he  al- 
ready possesses.  On  the  other  hand,  if  during  early  years  his 
conduct  violates  moral  law,  he  is  in  the  grip  of  habits  of  great 
strength  which  will  result  in  two  dangers.  He  maybe  blind  to 
the  other  side,  he  may  not  realize  how  his  conduct  violates  the 
laws  of  social  progress ;  or,  knowing,  he  may  not  care  enough  to 
put  forth  the  tremendous  effort  necessary  to  break  these  habits 
and  build  up  the  opposite.  From  the  standpoint  of  conduct  this 
non-moral  period  is  the  most  important  one  in  the  life  of  the 
child.  In  it  the  twig  is  bent.  To  urge  that  a  child  cannot 
understand  and  therefore  should  be  excused  for  all  sorts  of  con- 
duct simply  evades  the  issue.  He  is  forming  habits  —  that 
cannot  be  prevented ;  the  question  is,  Are  those  habits  in  line 
with  the  demands  of  social  efficiency  or  are  they  in  violation  of  it  ? 
But  character  depends  primarily  on  deliberate  choice.  We 
dare  not  rely  on  blind  habit  alone  to  carry  us  through  the  crises 
of  social  and  spiritual  adjustment.  There  will  arise  the  insistent 
question  as  to,  whether  the  habitual  presupposition  is  right. 
Occasions  will  occur  when  several  possible  Hues  of  conduct  sug- 
gest themselves;  what  kind  of  success  will  one  choose,  what 
kind  of  pleasure  ?  Choice,  personal  choice,  will  be  forced  upon 
the  individual.  This  problem  does  not  usually  grow  acute  until 
early  adolescence,  although  it  may  along  some  lines  present 
itself  earlier.  When  it  appears  will  depend  to  a  large  extent 
on  the  environment.  For  some  people  in  some  directions  it 
never  comes.     It  should  come  gradually  and  spontaneously. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL  SOCIAL   CONDUCT    179 

This  period  is  the  period  of  transition,  when  old  habits  are  being 
scrutinized,  when  standards  are  being  formulated  and  personal 
responsibility  is  being  realized,  when  ideals  are  made  vital  and 
controlling:  It  may  be  a  period  of  storm  and  stress  when  the 
youth  is  in  emotional  unrest ;  when  conduct  is  erratic  and  not 
to  be  depended  on ;  when  there  is  reaction  against  authority  of 
all  kinds.  These  characteristics  are  unfortunate  and  are  usually 
the  result  of  unwise  treatment  during  the  first  period.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  period  of  transition  is  prepared  for  during  the 
preadolescent  years  by  giving  knowledge,  opportunities  for 
self-direction  and  choice,  the  change  should  come  normally  and 
quietly.  The  transition  period  should  be  characterized  by  em- 
phasis upon  personal  responsibility  for  conduct,  by  the  develop- 
ment of  social  ideals,  and  by  the  cementing  of  theory  and  prac- 
tice.    This  period  is  an  ever  recurring  one. 

The  transition  period  is  followed  by  the  period  of  true  morality 
during  which  the  conduct  chosen  becomes  habit.  The  habits 
characteristic  of  this  final  period  are  different  from  the  habits  of 
the  non-moral  period,  in  that  they  have  their  source  in  reason, 
whereas  those  of  the  early  period  grew  out  of  instincts.  This  is 
the  period  of  most  value,  the  period  of  steady  living  in  accord- 
ance with  standards  and  ideals  which  have  been  tested  by  reason 
and  found  to  be  right.  The  transition  period  is  wasteful  and  un- 
certain. True  morality  is  the  opposite.  But  so  long  as  growth  in 
moral  matters  goes  on  there  is  a  continuous  change  from  transi- 
tion period  to  truly  moral  conduct  and  back  again  to  a  fresh 
transition  period  and  again  a  change  to  morality  of  a  still  higher 
order.  Each  rationaHzed  habit  but  paves  the  way  for  one  still 
higher.  Morality,  then,  should  be  a  continual  evolution  from  level 
to  level.     Only  so  is  progress  in  the  individual  life  maintained. 

Morality,  then,  requires  the  inhibition  of  some  instincts  and 
the  perpetuation  of  others,  the  formation  of  habits  and  ideals, 
the  development  of  the  power  to  think  and  judge,  the  power  to 


i8o  HOW  TO  TEACH 

react  to  certain  abstractions  such  as  ought,  right,  duty,  and  so  on, 
the  power  to  carry  into  execution  values  accepted.  The  general 
laws  of  instinct,  of  habit,  the  response  by  piecemeal  association, 
the  laws  of  attention  and  appreciation,  are  active  in  securing 
these  responses  that  we  call  moral,  just  as  they  are  operative  in  se- 
curing other  responses  that  do  not  come  under  this  category.  It 
is  only  as  these  general  psychological  laws  are  carried  out  suffi- 
ciently that  stable  moral  conduct  is  secured.  Any  violation  of 
these  laws  invalidates  the  result  in  the  moral  field  just  as  it  would 
in  any  other.  There  is  not  one  set  of  principles  governing  moral 
conduct  and  another  set  governing  all  other  types  of  conduct. 
The  same  general  laws  govern  both.  This  being  true,  there  is 
no  need  of  discussing  in  detail  the  operation  of  laws  controlling 
moral  conduct  —  that  has  all  been  covered  in  the  previous 
chapters.  However,  there  are  some  suggestions  which  should 
be  borne  in  mind  in  the  application  of  these  laws  to  this  field. 

First,  it  is  a  general  principle  that  habits,  to  be  fixed  and  stable, 
must  be  followed  by  satisfactory  results  and  that  working  along 
the  opposite  line,  that  of  having  annoyance  follow  a  lapse  in  the 
conduct,  is  uneconomical  and  unreliable.  This  principle  applies 
particularly  to  moral  habits.  Truth  telling,  bravery,  obedience, 
generosity,  thought  for  others,  church  going,  and  so  on  must  be 
followed  by  positive  satisfaction,  if  they  are  to  be  part  of  the 
warp  and. woof  of  life.  Punishing  falsehood,  selfishness,  cow- 
ardice, and  so  on  is  not  enough,  for  freedom  from  supervision  will 
usually  mean  rejection  of  such  forced  habits.  A  child  must 
find  that  it  pays  to  be  generous;  that  he  is  happier  when  he 
cooperates  with  others  than  when  he  does  not.  Positive  satis- 
faction should  follow  moral  conduct.  Of  course  this  satisfaction 
must  vary  in  type  with  the  age  and  development  of  the  child, 
from  physical  pleasure  occasioned  by  an  apple  as  a  reward  for 
self-control  at  table  to  the  satisfaction  which  the  consciousness 
of  duty  well  done  brings  to  the  adolescent. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL  SOCIAL   CONDUCT    t8i 

Second,  the  part  played  by  suggestion  in  bringing  about 
moral  habits  and  ideals  must  be  recognized.  The  human  per- 
sonalities surrounding  the  child  are  his  most  influential  teachers 
in  this  line.  This  influence  of  personalities  begins  when  the 
child  is  yet  a  baby.  Reflex  imitation  first,  and  later  conscious 
imitation  plus  the  feeling  of  dependence  which  a  little  child 
has  for  the  adults  in  his  environment,  results  in  the  child  re- 
flecting to  a  large  extent  the  characters  of  those  about  him. 
Good  temper,  stability,  care  for  others,  self-control,  and  many 
other  habits ;  respect  for  truth,  for  the  opinion  of  others,  and 
many  other  ideals,  are  unconsciously  absorbed  by  the  child  in 
his  early  years.  Example  not  precept,  actions  not  words,  are 
the  controlling  forces  in  moral  education.  Hence  the  great 
importance  of  the  characters  of  a  child's  companions,  friends, 
and  teachers,  to  say  nothing  of  his  parents.  Next  to  person- 
alities, theaters,  moving  pictures,  and  books,  all  have  great 
suggestive  power. 

Third,  there  is  always  a»danger  that  theory  become  divorced 
from  practice,  and  this  is  particularly  true  here  because  morality 
is  conduct.  Knowing  what  is  right  is  one  thing,  doing  it  is  an- 
other, and  knowing  does  not  result  in  doing  unless  definite  con- 
nections are  made  between  the  two.  Instruction  in  morals 
may  have  but  little  effect  on  conduct.  It  is  only  as  the  knowl- 
edge of  what  is  right  and  good  comes  in  connection  with  social 
situations  when  there  is  the  call  for  action  that  true  morality 
can  be  gained.  Mere  classroom  instruction  cannot  insure  con- 
duct. It  is  only  as  the  family  and  the  school  become  more  truly 
social  institutions,  where  group  activity  such  as  one  finds  in  life 
is  the  dominant  note,  that  we  can  hope  to  have  morality  and  not 
ethics,  ideals  and  not  passive  appreciation,  as  a  result  of  our 
teaching. 

Fourth,  it  is  without  question  true  that  in  so  far  as  the  habits 
fixed  are  *' school  habits"  or  '^ Sunday  habits,"  or  9,ny  other 


1 82  HOW  TO  TEACH 

special  type  of  habits,  formed  only  in  connection  with  special 
situations,  to  that  extent  we  have  no  reason  to  expect  moral 
conduct  in  the  broader  life  situations.  The  habits  formed  are 
those  that  will  be  put  into  practice,  and  they  are  the  only  ones 
we  are  sure  of.  Because  a  child  is  truthful  in  school,  prompt 
in  attendance,  polite  to  his  teacher,  and  so  on  is  no  warrant  that 
he  will  be  the  same  on  the  playground  or  on  the  street.  Be- 
cause a  child  can  think  out  a  problem  in  history  or  mathematics 
is  no  warrant  that  he  will  therefore  think  out  moral  problems. 
The  only  sure  way  is  to  see  to  it  that  he  forms  many  useful  habits 
out  of  school  as  well  as  in,  that  he  has  opportunity  to  think  out 
moral  problems  as  well  as  problems  in  school  subjects.^ 

Fifth,  individual  differences  must  not  be  forgotten  in  moral 
training.  Individual  differences  in  suggestibility  will  influence 
the  use  of  this  factor  in  habit  formation.  Individual  differences 
in  power  of  appreciation  will  influence  the  formation  of  ideals. 
Differences  in  interest  in  books  will  result  in  differing  degrees  of 
knowledge.  Differences  in  maturity  will  mean  that  certain 
children  in  a  class  are  ready  for  facts  concerning  sex,  labor  and 
capital,  crime,  and  so  on,  long  before  other  children  in  the  same 
class  should  have  such  knowledge.  Differences  in  thinking 
power  will  determine  efficiency  in  moral  situations  just  as  in 
others. 

The  more  carefully  we  consider  the  problem  of  moral  social 
conduct,  the  more  apparent  it  becomes  that  the  work  of  the  school 
can  be  modified  so  as  to  produce  more  significant  results  than 
are  commonly  now  secured.  Indeed,  it  may  be  contended  that 
in  some  respects  the  activities  of  the  school  operate  to  develop 
an  attitude  which  is  largely  individualistic,  competitive,  and,  if 
not  anti-social,  at  least  non-social.  Although  we  may  not 
expect  that  the  habits  and  attitudes  which  are  developed  in  the 
school  will  entirely  determine  the  life  led  outside,  yet  one  may 
^  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  this  topic  see  next  chapter. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL  SOCIAL  CONDUCT    183 

not  forget  that  a  large  part  of  the  life  of  children  is  spent  under 
school  supervision.  As  children  work  in  an  atmosphere  of 
cooperation,  and  as  they  form  habits  of  helpfulness  and  open- 
mindedness,  we  may  expect  that  in  some  degree  these  types  of 
activity  will  persist,  especially  in  their  association  with  each 
other.  In  a  school  which  is  organized  to  bring  about  the  right 
sort  of  moral  social  conduct  we  ought  to  expect  that  children 
would  grow  in  their  power  to  accept  responsibility  for  each  other. 
The  writer  knows  of  a  fourth  grade  in  which  during  the  past  year 
a  boy  was  absent  from  the  room  after  recess.  The  teacher,  in- 
stead of  sending  the  janitor,  or  she  herself  going  to  find  the  boy, 
asked  the  class  what  they  were  going  to  do  about  it,  and  sug- 
gested to  them  their  responsibility  for  maintaining  the  good 
name  which  they  had  always  borne  as  a  group.  Two  of  the  more 
mature  boys  volunteered  to  go  and  find  the  boy  who  was  absent. 
When  they  brought  him  into  the  room  a  little  while  later,  they 
remarked  to  the  teacher  in  a  most  matter-of-fact  way,  *' We  do  not 
think  that  he  will  stay  out  after  recess  again."  In  the  corridor 
of  an  elementary  school  the  writer  saw  during  the  past  year  two 
boys  sitting  on  a  table  before  school  hours  in  the  morning.  The 
one  was  teaching  the  multiplication  tables  to  the  other.  They 
were  both  sixth-grade  pupils,  —  the  one  a  boy  who  had  for  some 
reason  or  other  never  quite  thoroughly  learned  his  tables.  The 
teacher  had  suggested  that  somebody  might  help  him,  and  a 
boy  had  volunteered  to  come  early  to  school  in  order  that  he 
might  teach  the  boy  who  was  backward.  A  great  many  teachers 
have  discovered  that  the  strongest  motive  which  they  can  find 
for  good  work  in  the  field  of  English  is  to  be  found  in  providing 
an  audience,  both  for  the  reading  or  story-telling,  and  for  the 
English  composition.  The  idea  which  prevails  is  that  if  one  is 
to  read,  he  ought  to  read  well  enough  to  entertain  others.  If  one 
has  enjoyed  a  story,  he  may,  if  he  prepares  himself  sufficiently 
well,  tell  it  to  the  class  or  to  some  other  group. 


1 84  HOW  TO  TEACH 

Much  more  emphasis  on  the  undertakings  in  the  attempt  to 
have  children  accept  responsibility,  and  to  engage  in  a  type  of 
activity  which  has  a  definite  moral  social  value,  is  to  be  found  in 
the  schools  in  which  children  are  responsible  for  the  morning 
exercises,  or  for  publishing  a  school  paper,  or  for  preparing  a 
school  festival.  One  of  the  most  notable  achievements  in  this 
type  of  activity  which  the  writer  has  ever  known  occurred  in  a 
school  in  which  a  group  of  seventh-grade  children  were  thought  to 
be  particularly  incompetent.  The  teachers  had  almost  despaired 
of  having  them  show  normal  development,  either  intellectually 
or  socially.  After  a  conference  of  all  of  the  teachers  who  knew 
the  members  of  this  group,  it  was  decided  to  allow  them  to  pre- 
pare a  patriot's  day  festival.  The  idea  among  those  teachers 
who  had  failed  with  this  group  was  that  if  the  children  had  a  large 
responsibility,  they  would  show  a  correspondingly  significant 
development.  The  children  responded  to  the  motive  which  was 
provided,  became  earnest  students  of  history  in  order  that  they 
might  find  a  dramatic  situation,  and  worked  at  their  composi- 
tion when  they  came  to  write  their  play,  some  of  them  exercising 
a  critical  as  well  as  a  creative  faculty  which  no  one  had  known 
that  they  possessed.  But  possibly  the  best  thing  about  the 
whole  situation  was  that  every  member  of  the  class  found  some- 
thing to  do  in  their  cooperative  enterprise.  Some  members  of 
the  class  were  engaged  in  building  and  in  decorating  the  stage 
scenery ;  others  were  responsible  for  costumes  ;  those  who  were 
strong  in  music  devoted  themselves  to  this  field.  The  search 
for  a  proper  dramatic  situation  in  history  and  the  writing  of 
the  play  have  already  been  suggested.  The  staging  of  the  play 
and  its  presentation  to  a  large  group  of  parents  and  other  in- 
terested patrons  of  the  school  required  still  further  speciahzation 
and  ability.  Out  of  it  all  came  a  realization  of  the  possibility  of 
accomplishing  great  things  when  all  worked  together  for  the 
success  of  a  common  enterprise.     When  the  festival  day  came, 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL  SOCIAL   CONDUCT    185 

the  most  common  statement  heard  in  the  room  on  the  part  of 
the  parents  and  others  interested  in  the  work  of  the  children  was 
expressed  by  one  who  said:  ''This  is  the  most  wonderful  group 
of  seventh-grade  children  that  I  have  ever  seen.  They  are  as 
capable  as  most  high  school  boys  and  girls."  It  is  to  be  recalled 
that  this  was  the  group  in  whom  the  teachers  originally  had  little 
faith,  and  who  had  sometimes  been  called  in  their  school  a 
group  of  misfits. 

Some  schools  have  found,  especially  in  the  upper  grades,  an 
opportunity  for  a  type  of  social  activity  which  is  entirely  com- 
parable with  the  demand  made  upon  the  older  members  of  our 
communities.  This  work  for  social  improvement  or  betterment 
is  carried  on  frequently  in  connection  with  a  course  in  civics. 
In  some  schools  there  is  organized  what  is  known  as  the  junior 
police.  This  organization  has  been  in  some  cases  coordinated 
with  the  police  department.  The  boys  who  belong  pledge  them- 
selves to  maintain,  in  so  far  as  they  are  able,  proper  conditions 
on  the  streets  with  respect  to  play,  to  abstain  from  the  illegal  use 
of  tobacco  or  other  narcotics,  and  to  be  responsible  for  the  correct 
handling  of  garbage,  especially  to  see  that  paper,  ashes,  and  other 
refuse  are  placed  in  separate  receptacles,  and  that  these  recep- 
tacles are  removed  from  the  street  promptly  after  they  are 
emptied  by  the  department  concerned.  In  one  city  with  which 
the  writer  is  acquainted,  the  children  in  the  upper  grades,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  testimony  of  the  citizens  of  their  community, 
have  been  responsible  for  the  cleaning  up  of  the  street  cars.  In 
other  cities  they  have  become  interested,  and  have  interested 
their  parents,  in  the  question  of  milk  and  water  supply.  In  some 
cases  they  have  studied  many  different  departments  of  the  city 
government,  and  have,  in  so  far  as  it  was  possible,  lent  their 
cooperation.  In  one  case  a  group  of  children  became  very  much 
excited  concerning  a  dead  horse  that  was  allowed  to  remain  on  a 
street  near  the  school,  and  they  learned  before  they  were  through 


1 86  HOW  TO  TEACH 

just  whose  responsibility  it  was,  and  how  to  secure  the  action 
that  should  have  been  taken  earlier. 

Still  another  type  of  activity  which  may  have  significance  for 
the  moral  social  development  of  children  is  found  in  the  study 
of  the  life  activities  in  the  communities  in  which  they  live.  There 
is  no  reason  why  children,  especially  in  the  upper  grades  or  in 
the  high  school,  should  not  think  about  working  conditions, 
especially  as  they  involve  sweat-shops  or  work  under  unsanitary 
conditions.  They  may  very  properly  become  interested  in  the 
problems  of  relief,  and  of  the  measures  taken  to  eliminate  crime. 
Indeed,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  development  of  socially  effi- 
cient children,  it  would  seem  to  be  more  important  that  some 
elementary  treatment  of  industrial  and  social  conditions  might 
be  found  to  be  more  important  in  the  upper  grades  and  in  the 
high  school  than  any  single  subject  which  we  now  teach. 

Another  attempt  to  develop  a  reasonable  attitude  concerning 
moral  situations  is  found  in  the  schools  which  have  organized 
pupils  for  the  participation  in  school  government.  There  is  no 
particular  value  to  be  attached  to  any  such  form  of  organization. 
It  may  be  true  that  there  is  considerable  advantage  in  dramatiz- 
ing the  form  of  government  in  which  the  children  live,  and  for 
that  purpose  policemen,  councilmen  or  aldermen,  mayors,  and 
other  officials,  together  with  their  election,  may  help  in  the  under- 
standing of  the  social  obligations  which  they  will  have  to  meet 
later  on.  But  the  main  thing  is  to  have  these  children  come 
to  accept  responsibility  for  each  other,  and  to  seek  to  make  the 
school  a  place  where  each  respects  the  rights  of  others  and  where 
every  one  is  working  together  for  the  common  good.  In  this 
connection  it  is  important  to  suggest  that  schemes  of  self-govern- 
ment have  succeeded  only  where  there  has  been  a  leader  in  the 
position  of  principal  or  other  supervisory  officer  concerned. 
Children's  judgments  are  apt  to  be  too  severe  when  they  are 
allowed  to  discipline  members  of  their  group.     There  will  always 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL  SOCIAL  CONDUCT    187 

be  need,  whatever  attempt  we  may  make  to  have  them  accept 
responsibility,  for  the  guidance  and  direction  of  the  more  mature 
mind. 

We  seek  in  all  of  these  activities,  as  has  already  been  suggested, 
to  have  children  come  to  take,  in  so  far  as  they  are  able,  the 
rational  attitude  toward  the  problems  of  conduct  which  they  have 
to  face.  It  is  important  for  teachers  to  realize  the  fallacy  of 
making  a  set  of  rules  by  which  all  children  are  to  be  controlled. 
It  is  only  with  respect  to  those  types  of  activity  in  which  the 
response,  in  order  to  further  the  good  of  the  group,  must  be 
invariable  that  we  should  expect  to  have  pupils  become  auto- 
matic. It  is  important  in  the  case  of  a  fire  drill,  or  in  the  passing 
of  materials,  and  the  like,  that  the  response,  although  it  does 
involve  social  obligation,  should  be  reduced  to  the  level  of  mech- 
anized routine.  Most  school  situations  involve,  or  may  involve, 
judgment,  and  it  is  only  as  pupils  grow  in  power  of  self-control 
and  in  their  willingness  to  think  through  a  situation  before 
acting,  that  we  may  expect  significant  moral  development.  In 
the  case  of  offenses  which  seem  to  demand  punishment,  that 
teacher  is  wise  who  is  able  to  place  responsibility  with  the  pupil 
who  has  offended.  The  question  ought  to  be  common,  ^'What 
can  I  do  to  help  you  ?  "  The  question  which  the  teacher  should 
ask  herself  is  not,  ''What  can  I  do  to  punish  the  pupil?  ''but  rather, 
"How  can  I  have  him  realize  the  significance  of  his  action  and 
place  upon  him  the  responsibility  of  reinstating  himself  with  the 
social  group  ?  "  The  high  school  principal  who  solved  the  prob- 
lem of  a  teacher  who  said  that  she  would  not  teach  unless  a 
particular  pupil  were  removed  from  her  class,  and  of  the  pupil 
who  said  that  she  would  not  stay  in  school  if  she  had  to  go  to 
that  teacher,  by  telling  them  both  to  take  time  to  think  it  through 
and  decide  how  they  would  reconcile  their  differences,  is  a  case 
in  point.  What  we  need  is  not  the  punishment  which  follows 
rapidly  upon  our  feeling  of  resentment,  but  rather  the  wfedom  of 


1 88  HOW  TO  TEACH 

waiting  and  accepting  the  mistake  or  offense  of  the  pupil  as  an 
opportunity  for  careful  consideration  upon  his  part  and  as  a 
possible  means  of  growth  for  him. 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  during  recent  years  con- 
cerning the  obligation  of  the  school  to  teach  children  concerning 
matters  of  sex.  Traditionally,  our  policy  has  been  one  of  al- 
most entire  neglect.  The  consequence  has  been,  on  the  whole, 
the  acquisition  upon  the  part  of  boys  and  girls  of  a  large  body  of 
misinformation,  which  has  for  the  most  part  been  vicious.  It  is 
not  probable  that  we  can  ever  expect  most  teachers  to  have 
the  training  necessary  to  give  adequate  instruction  in  this  field. 
For  children  in  the  upper  grades,  during  the  preadolescent  period 
especially,  some  such  instruction  given  by  the  men  and  women 
trained  in  biology,  or  possibly  by  men  and  women  doctors  who 
have  made  a  specialty  of  this  field,  promises  a  large  contribution 
to  the  development  of  the  right  attitudes  with  respect  to  the  sex 
life  and  the  elimination  of  much  of  the  immorality  which  has 
been  due  to  ignorance  or  to  the  vicious  misinformation  which  has 
commonly  been  spread  among  children.  The  policy  of  secrecy 
and  ignorance  cannot  well  be  maintained  if  we  accept  the  idea 
of  responsibility  and  the  exercise  of  judgment  as  the  basis  of 
moral  social  activity.  In  no  other  field  are  the  results  of  a  lack 
of  training  or  a  lack  of  morality  more  certain  to  be  disastrous 
both  for  the  individual  and  for  the  social  group. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  satisfactory  is  the  morality  of  the  man  who  claims  that  he  does 
no  wrong? 

2.  How  is  it  possible  for  a  child  to  be  unmoral  and  not  immoral? 

3.  Are  children  who  observe  school  rules  and  regulations  necessarily 
growing  in  morality  ? 

4.  Why  is  it  important,  from  the  standpoint  of  growth  in  morality, 
to  have  children  form  socially  desirable  habits,  even  though  we  may  not 
speak  of  this  kind  of  activity  as  moral  conduct  ? 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MORAL  SOCIAL   CONDUCT    189 

5.  What  constitutes  growth  in  mojality  for  the  adult? 

6.  In  what  sense  is  it  possible  for  the  same  act  to  be  immoral,  unmoral, 
and  moral  for  individuals  living  under  differing  circimistances  and  in  differ- 
ent social  groups  ?     Give  an  example. 

7.  Why  have  moral  reformers  sometimes  been  considered  immoral  by 
their  associates  ? 

8 .  What  is  the  moral  significance  of  earning  a  living  ?  Of  being  prompt  ? 
Of  being  courteous  ? 

9.  What  are  the  instincts  upon  which  we  may  hope  to  build  in  moral 
training?    What  instinctive  basis  is  there  for  immoral  conduct? 

10.  To  what  extent  is  intellectual  activity  involved  in  moral  conduct? 
What  is  the  significance  of  one's  emotional  response? 

11.  What  stages  of  development  are  distinguishable  in  the  moral  de- 
velopment of  children?  Is  it  possible  to  classify  children  as  belonging  to 
one  stage  or  the  other  by  their  ages  ? 

12.  Why  is  it  true  that  one's  character  depends  upon  the  deliberate 
choices  which  he  makes  among  several  possible  modes  or  types  of  action  ? 

13.  Why  is  it  important  to  have  positive  satisfaction  follow  moral 
conduct  ? 

14.  How  may  the  conduct  of  parents  and  teachers  influence  conduct  of 
children  ? 

15.  What  is  the  weakness  of  direct  moral  instruction,  e.g.  the  telling  of 
stories  of  truthfulness,  the  teaching  of  moral  precepts,  and  the  like  ? 

16.  What  opportunities  can  you  provide  in  your  class  for  moral  social 
conduct  ? 

17.  Children  will  do  what  is  right  because  of  their  desire  to  please, 
their  respect  for  authority,  their  fear  of  unpleasant  consequences,  their 
careful,  •  thoughtful  analysis  of  the  situation  and,  choice  of  that  form  of 
action  which  they  consider  right.  Arrange  these  motives  in  order  of  their 
desirability.  Would  you  be  satisfied  to  utilize  the  motive  which  brings 
results  most  quickly  and  most  surely? 

18.  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  lapses  from  moral  conduct  are  the 
teacher's  best  opportunity  for  moral  teaching  ? 

19.  How  may  children  contribute  to  the  social  welfare  of  the  school 
community?     Of  the  larger  social  group  outside  of  the  school? 

20.  How  may  pupil  participation  in  school  government  be  made  sig- 
nificant in  the  development  of  social  moral  conduct  ? 


XII 

TRANSFER  OF  TRAINING 

Formal  discipline  or  transfer  of  training  concerns  itself  with 
the  question  as  to  how  far  training  in  one  subject,  along  one 
line,  influences  other  lines.  How  far,  for  instance,  training  in 
reasoning  in  mathematics  helps  a  child  to  reason  in  history,  in 
morals,  in  household  administration ;  how  far  memorizing  gems 
of  poetry  or  dates  in  history  aids  memory  when  it  is  applied  to 
learning  stenography  or  botany;  how  far  giving  attention  to 
the  gymnasium  will  insure  attention  to  sermons  and  one's  social 
engagements.  The  question  is,  How  far  does  the  special  training 
one  gets  in  home  and  school  fit  him  to  react  to  the  environment 
of  life  with  its  new  and  complex  situations?  Put  in  another 
way,  the  question  is  what  effect  upon  other  bonds  does  forming 
this  particular  situation  response  series  of  bonds  have.  The 
practical  import  of  the  question  and  its  answer  is  tremendous. 
Most  of  our  present  school  system,  both  in  subject  matter  and 
method,  is  built  upon  the  assumption  that  one  answer  is  correct 
—  if  it  is  false,  much  work  remains  to  be  done  by  the  present- 
day  education. 

The  point  of  view  which  was  held  until  recent  years  is  best 
made  clear  by  a  series  of  quotations. 

"Since  the  mind  is  a  unit  and  the  faculties  are  simply  phases  or  mani- 
festations of  its  activity,  whatever  strengthens  one  faculty  indirectly 
strengthens  all  the  others.  The  verbal  memory  seems  to  be  an  exception 
to  this  statement,  however,  for  it  may  be  abnormally  cultivated  without 
involving  to  any  profitable  extent  the  other  faculties.     But  only  things 

190 


TRANSFER  OF  TRAINING  igi 

that  are  rightly  perceived  and  rightly  understood  can  be  rightly  remem- 
bered. Hence  whatever  develops  the  acquisitive  and  assimilative  powers 
will  also  strengthen  memory;  and,  conversely,  rightly  strengthening  the 
memory  necessitates  the  developing  and  training  of  the  other  powers." 
(R.  N.  Roark,  Method  in  Education,  p.  27.) 

"It  is  as  a  means  of  training  the  faculties  of  perception  and  generaliza- 
tion that  the  study  of  such  a  language  as  Latin  in  comparison  with  English 
is  so  valuable."     (C.  L.  Morgan,  Psychology  for  Teachers,  p.  186.) 

"Arithmetic,  if  judiciously  taught,  forms  in  the  pupil  habits  of  mental 
attention,  argumentative  sequence,  absolute  accuracy,  and  satisfaction  in 
truth  as  a  result,  that  do  not  seem  to  spring  equally  from  the  study  of  any 
other  subject  suitable  to  this  elementary  stage  of  instruction."  (Joseph 
Payne,  Lectures  on  Education,  Vol.  I,  p.  260.) 

"By  means  of  experimental  and  observational  work  in  science,  not  only 
will  his  attention  be  excited,  the  power  of  observation,  previously  awakened, 
much  strengthened,  and  the  senses  exercised  and  disciplined,  but  the  very 
important  habit  of  doing  homage  to  the  authority  of  facts  rather  than  to 
the  authority  of  men,  be  initiated."     {Ihid.,  p.  261.) 

The  view  maintained  by  these  writers  is  that  the  mind  is  made 
up  of  certain  elemental  powers  such  as  attention,  reasoning, 
observation,  imagination,  and  the  like,  each  of  which  acts  as  a 
unit.  Training  any  one  of  these  powers  means  simply  its  ex- 
ercise irrespective  of  the  material  used.  The  facility  gained 
through  this  exercise  may  then  be  transferred  to  other  subjects 
or  situations,  which  are  quite  "different.  The  present  point  of 
view  with  regard  to  this  question  is  very  different,  as  is  shown 
by  the  following  quotations  : 

"We  may  conclude,  then,  that  there  is  something  which  may  be  called 
formal  discipline,  and  that  it  may  be  more  or  less  general  in  character. 
It  consists  in  the  establishment  of  habitual  reactions  that  correspond  to 
the  form  of  situations.  These  reactions  foster  adjustments,  attitudes,  and 
ideas  that  favor  the  successful  dealing  with  the  emergencies  that  arouse 
them.  On  the  other  hand,  both  the  form  that  we  can  learn  to  deal  with 
more  effectively,  and  the  reactions  that  we  associate  with  it,  are  definite. 
There  is  no  general  training  of  the  powers  or  faculties,  so  far  as  we  can 
determine."     (Henderson,  '10,  p.  307  f.) 


192  HOW  TO  TEACH 

"One  mental  function  or  activity  improves  others  in  so  far  as  and  be- 
cause they  are  in  part  identical  with  it,  because  it  contains  elements  common 
to  them.  Addition  improves  multiphcation  because  multiplication  is 
largely  addition ;  knowledge  of  Latin  gives  increased  ability  to  learn  French 
because  many  of  the  facts  learned  in  the  one  case  are  needed  in  the  other. 
The  study  of  geometry  may  lead  a  pupil  to  be  more  logical  in  all  respects, 
for  one  element  of  being  logical  in  all  respects  is  to  realize  that  facts  can 
be  absolutely  proven  and  to  admire  and  desire  this  certain  and  imquestion- 
able  sort  of  demonstration.  .  .  ."     (Thorndike,  '06,  pp.  243-245,  passim.) 

"Mental  discipline  is  the  most  important  thing  in  education,  but  it  is 
specific,  not  general.  The  ability  developed  by  means  of  one  subject  can 
be  transferred  to  another  subject  only  in  so  far  as  the  latter  has  elements 
in  common  with  the  former.  Abilities  should  be  developed  in  school  only 
by  means  of  those  elements  of  subject-matter  and  of  method  that  are 
common  to  the  most  valuable  phases  of  the  outside  environment.  In  the 
high  school  there  should  also  be  an  effort  to  work  out  general  concepts  of 
method  from  the  specific  methods  used."     (Heck,  '09,  Edition  of  'i  i,  p.  198.) 

"...  No  study  should  have  a  place  in  the  curriculum  for  which  this 
general  disciplinary  characteristic  is  the  chief  recommendation.  Such 
advantage  can  probably  be  gotten  in  some  degree  from  every  study,  and 
the  intrinsic  values  of  each  study  afford  at  present  a  far  safer  criterion  of 
educational  work  than  any  which  we  can  derive  from  the  theory  of  formal 
discipline."     (Angell,  '08,  p.  14.) 

These  writers  also  believe  in  transfer  of  training,  but  they 
believe  the  transfer  to  be  never  complete,  to  be  in  general  a 
very  small  percentage  of  the  special  improvement  gained  and 
at  times  to  be  negative  and  to  interfere  with  responses  in  other 
fields  instead  of  being  a  help.  They  also  emphasize  the  belief 
that  when  the  transfer  does  occur,  it  is  for  some  perfectly  valid 
reason  and  under  certain  very  definite  conditions.  They  reject 
utterly  the  machine-like  idea  of  the  mind  and  its  elemental 
faculties  held  by  the  writers  first  quoted.  They  hold  the  view 
of  mental  activity  which  has  been  emphasized  in  the  discussion 
of  original  tendencies  and  inheritance  from  near  ancestry,  i.e.^ 
that  the  physical  correlate  of  all  types  of  mental  activity  is  a 
definite  forming  of  connections  between  particular  bonds  — 


TRANSFER  OF  TRAINING  193 

these  connections,  of  course,  according  to  the  laws  of  readiness, 
exercise,  and  effect,  would  be  determined  by  the  situation  acting 
as  a  stimulus  and  would,  therefore,  vary  as  the  total  situation 
varied.  They  believe  in  a  highly  specialized  human  brain, 
which  reacts  in  small  groups  of  nerve  tracts  —  not  in  gross  wholes. 
They  would  express  each  of  the  ''elemental"  powers  in  the 
plural  and  not  in  the  singular. 

The  basis  of  this  change  of  view  within  the  last  fifteen  or 
twenty  years  is  to  be  found  in  experimental  work.  The  ques- 
tion has  definitely  been  put  to  the  test  as  to  how  far  training  in 
one  line  did  influence  others.  For  a  full  description  of  the 
various  types  of  experiments  performed  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Thorndike's  "  Psychology  of  Learning,"  Chapter  12.  Only  an 
indication  of  the  type  of  work  done  and  the  general  character  of 
the  results  can  be  given  here.  Experiments  in  the  effect  of 
cross  education,  in  memorizing,  in  observing  and  judging  sensory 
and  perceptual  data,  and  in  forming  sensori-motor  association 
habits  have  been  conducted  in  considerable  numbers.  A  few 
experiments  in  special  school  functions  have  also  been  carried 
out.  Investigations  in  the  correlation  between  various  parts 
of  the  same  subject  and  between  different  subjects  supposed  to 
be  closely  allied  also  throw  light  upon  this  subject.  The  results 
from  these  different  lines  of  experiment,  although  confusing  and 
sometimes  contradictory,  seem  to  warrant  the  belief  stated 
above.  They  have  made  it  very  clear  that  the  question  of 
transfer  is  not  a  simple  one,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely complex.  They  make  plain  that  in  some  cases  where 
large  transfer  was  confidently  expected,  that  little  resulted, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  in  Some  cases  when  little  was  expected, 
much  more  occurred.  It  is  evident  that  the  old  idea  of  a  large 
transfer  in  some  subtle  and  unexplained  way  of  special  improve- 
ments to  a  general  faculty  is  false.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
would  be  equally  false  to  say  that  no  transfer  occurred,     The 


194  HOW  TO  TEACH 

general  principle  seems  to  be  that  transfer  occurs  when  the 
same  bonds  are  used  in  the  second  situation  to  the  extent  that 
the  alteration  in  these  particular  connections  affects  the  second 
response.  Both  the  knowledge  of  what  bonds  are  used  in  various 
responses  and  to  what  extent  alteration  in  them  will  affect 
different  total  responses  is  lacking.  Therefore,  all  that  is  at 
present  possible  is  a  statement  of  conditions  under  which  trans- 
fer is  probable. 

In  general,  then,  transfer  of  training  will  occur  to  the  extent 
that  the  two  responses  use  the  same  bonds  —  to  the  extent, 
then,  that  there  is  identity  of  some  sort.  This  identity  which 
makes  transfer  possible  may  be  of  all  degrees  of  generality  and 
of  several  different  types.  First,  there  may  be  identity  of  con- 
tent. For  instance,  forming  useful  connections  with  six,  island, 
and,  red,  habit,  Africa,  square  root,  triangle,  gender,  percentage, 
and  so  on,  in  this  or  that  particular  context  should  be  of  use  in 
other  contexts  and  therefore  allow  of  transfer  of  training.  The 
more  common  the  particular  responses  are  to  all  sorts  of  life 
situations,  the  greater  the  possibility  of  transfer.  Second,  the 
identity  may  be  that  of  method  or  procedure.  To  be  able  to  add, 
to  carry,  to  know  the  method  of  classifying  an  unknown  flower, 
to  have  a  definite  method  of  meeting  a  new  situation  in  hand- 
work, to  know  how  to  use  source  material  in  history,  to  have 
gained  the  technique  of  laboratory  skill  in  chemistry,  to  know 
how  to  study  in  geography,  should  be  useful  in  other  depart- 
ments where  the  same  method  would  serve.  Some  of  these 
methods  are,  of  course,  of  much  more  general  service  than 
others.  In  establishing  skill  in  the  use  of  these  various  pro- 
cedures, two  types  of  responses  are  needed.  The  learner  must 
form  connections  of  a  positive  nature,  such  as  analyzing,  collect- 
ing material,  criticizing  according  to  standard,  picking  out  the 
essential  and  so  on,  and  he  must  also  form  connections  of  a  nega- 
tive character  which  will  cause  him  to  neglect  certain  tendencies. 


TRANSFER  OF  TRAINING  195 

He  must  learn  not  to  accept  the  first  idea  offered,  to  neglect  sug- 
gestions, to  hurry  or  to  leave  half  finished,  to  ignore  interruptions, 
to  prevent  personal  bias  to  influence  criticism,  and  so  on.  These 
connections  which  result  in  neglecting  certain  elements  are  quite 
as  important  as  the  positive  element,  both  in  the  production  of 
the  particular  procedure  and  in  the  transfer  to  other  fields. 
Third,  the  identity  may  be  of  still  more  general  character  and 
be  in  terms  of  attitude  or  ideal.  To  learn  to  be  thorough  in 
connection  with  history,  accurate  in  handwork,  open-minded  in 
science,  persistent  in  Latin,  critical  in  geometry,  thorough  in 
class  and  school  activities ;  to  form  habits  of  allegiance  to  ideals 
of  truth,  cooperation,  fair  play,  tolerance,  courage,  and  so  on, 
may  help  the  learner  to  exhibit  these  same  attitudes  in  other 
situations  in  life.  Here  again  the  connections  of  neglect  are 
important.  To  neglect  selfish  suggestions,  to  ignore  the  escape 
from  consequences  that  falsehood  might  make  possible,  to  be 
dead  to  fear,  to  ignore  bodily  aches  and  pains,  are  quite  as  neces- 
sary in  producing  conduct  that  is  generous,  truthful,  and  coura- 
geous as  are  the  positive  connections  made  in  building  up  the 
ideal. 

In  the  discussion  of  transfer  because  of  identity,  it  was  empha- 
sized that  the  presence  of  identity  of  various  types  explained 
cases  of  transfer  that  exist  and  made  transfer  possible.  In  no 
case  must  it  be  understood,  however,  that  the  presence  of  these 
identical  elements  is  a  warrant  of  transfer.  Transfer  may  take 
place  under  such  conditions,  but  it  need  not  do  so.  Transfer 
is  most  sure  to  occur  in  cases  of  identity  of  substance  and  least 
likely  in  cases  of  identity  of  attitude  or  ideals.  To  have  useful 
responses  to  six,  above,  city,  quart,  and  so  on,  in  one  situation 
will  very  likely  mean  responses  of  a  useful  nature  in  almost  all 
situations  which  have  such  elements  present;  It  is  very  different 
with  the  ideals.  A  child  may  be  very  accurate  in  handwork, 
and  yet  almost  nothing  of  it  show  elsewhere ;  he  may  be  truthful 


ig6  HOW  TO  TEACH 

to  his  teacher  and  lie  to  his  parents ;  he  may  be  generous  to  his 
classmates  and  the  reverse  to  his  brothers  and  sisters.  Per- 
sistence in  Latin  may  not  influence  his  work  in  the  shop,  and 
the  critical  attitude  of  geometry  be  lacking  in  his  science.  Trans- 
fer in  methods  holds  a  middle  ground.  It  seems  that  the  more 
complex  and  the  more  subtle  the  connections  involved,  the  less 
is  the  amount  and  the  surety  of  the  transfer. 

In  order  to  increase  the  probability  of  transfer  when  connec- 
tions of  method  or  attitudes  are  being  formed,  first,  it  should  be 
made  conscious,  and  second,  it  should  be  put  into  practice  in 
several  types  of  situations.  There  is  grave  danger  that  the 
method  will  not  be  differentiated  from  the  subject,  the  ideal 
from  the  context  of  the  situation.  To  many  children  learning 
how  to  study  in  connection  with  history,  or  to  be  critical  in 
geometry,  or  to  be  scientific  in  the  laboratory,  has  never  been 
separated  from  the  particular  situation.  The  method  or  the 
ideal  and  the  situation  in  which  they  have  been  acquired  are 
one  —  one  response.  The  general  elements  of  method  or  at- 
titude have  never  been  made  conscious,  they  are  submerged  in 
the  particular  subject  or  situation,  and  therefore  the  probabihty 
of  transfer  is  lessened.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  question  of 
method,  as  an  idea  by  itself,  apart  from  any  particular  subject, 
is  brought  to  the  child's  attention;  if  truth  as  an  ideal,  inde- 
pendent of  context,  is  made  conscious,  it  is  much  more  Hkely  to 
be  reacted  to  in  a  different  situation,  for  it  has  become  a  free 
idea  and  therefore  crystallized.  Then  having  freed  the  general 
somewhat  from  its  particular  setting,  the  learner  should  be  given 
opportunity  to  put  it  in  practice  in  other  settings.  To  simply 
form  the  method  connections  or  the  attitude  responses  in  Latin 
and  then  blindly  trust  that  they  will  be  of  general  use  is  unsafe. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  educator  to  make  as  sure  as  he  can  of 
the  transfer,  and  that  can  only  be  done  by  practicing  in  several 
fields.     These  two  procedures  which  make  transfer  more  sure, 


TRANSFER  OF  TRAINING  197 

i.e.,  making  the  element  conscious  and  giving  practice  in  several 
fields,  are  not  sharply  divided,  but  interact.  Practice  makes 
the  idea  clearer  and  freer,  and  this  in  turn  makes  fresh  practice 
profitable.  It  is  simply  the  application  of  the  law  of  analysis 
by  varying  concomitants. 

In  all  this  matter  of  transfer  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a 
very  slight  amount  of  transfer  of  some  of  these  more  general 
responses  may  be  of  tremendous  value  educationally,  pro- 
vided it  is  over  a  very  wide  field.  If  a  boy's  study  of  high 
school  science  made  him  at  all  more  scientific  in  his  attitude 
towards  such  life  situations  as  politics,  morals,  city  sanitation, 
and  the  like,  it  would  be  of  much  more  value  than  the  particular 
habit  formed.  If  a  girl's  work  in  home  economics  resulted  in 
but  a  slight  transfer  of  vital  interest  to  the  actual  problems  of 
home-making,  it  would  mean  much  to  the  homes  of  America. 
If  a  boy's  training  in  connection  with  the  athletics  of  his  school 
fosters  in  him  an  ideal  of  fair  play  which  influences  him  at  all 
in  his  dealings  with  men  in  business,  with  his  family,  with  him- 
self, the  training  would  have  been  worth  while.  To  discount 
training  simply  because  the  transfer  is  slight  is  manifestly  unfair. 
The  kind  of  responses  which  transfer  are  quite  as  important  as 
the  amount  of  the  transfer. 

The  idea  that  every  subject  will  furnish  the  same  amount  of 
discipline  provided  they  are  equally  well  taught  is  evidently 
false.  Every  school  subject  must  now  be  weighed  from  two 
points  of  view,  —  first,  as  to  the  worth  of  the  particular  facts, 
responses,  habits,  which  it  forms,  and  second,  as  to  the  oppor- 
tunity it  offers  for  the  formation  of  connections  which  are  of 
general  application.  The  training  which  educators  are  sure  of 
is  the  particular  training  offered  by  the  subject;  the  general 
training  is  more  problematic.  Hence  no  subject  should  be  re- 
tained in  our  present  curriculum  whose  only  value  is  a  claim  to 
disciplinary   training.     Such   general   training   as   the   subject 


1 98  HOW  TO  TEACH 

affords  could  probably  be  gained  from  some  other  subject  whose 
content  is  also  valuable.  Just  because  a  subject  is  difficult,  or 
is  distasteful,  is  no  sign  that  its  pursuit  will  result  in  disciplinary 
training.  In  fact,  the  psychology  of  play  and  drudgery  make 
it  apparent  that  the  presence  of  annoyance,  of  distaste,  will 
lessen  the  disciplinary  value.  Only  those  subjects  and  activities 
which  are  characterized  by  the  play  spirit  can  offer  true  educa- 
tional development.  The  more  the  play  spirit  enters  in,  the 
greater  the  possibility  of  securing  not  only  special  training, 
but  general  discipline  as  well.  Thorndike  sums  up  the  present 
attitude  towards  special  subjects  by  saying,  ''An  impartial  in- 
ventory of  the  facts  in  the  ordinary  pupil  of  ten  to  eighteen 
would  find  the  general  training  from  English  composition  greater 
than  that  from  formal  logic,  the  training  from  physics  and 
chemistry  greater  than  that  from  geometry,  and  the  training 
from  a  year's  study  of  the  laws  and  institutions  of  the  Romans 
greater  than  that  from  equal  study  of  their  language.  The 
grammatical  studies  which  have  been  considered  the  chief 
depositories  of  disciplinary  magic  would  be  found  in  general 
inferior  to  scientific  treatments  of  human  nature  as  a  whole. 
The  superiority  for  discipline  of  pure  overapplied  science  would 
be  referred  in  large  measure  to  the  fact  that  pure  science  could  be 
so  widely  applied.  The  disciplinary  value  of  geometry  would 
appear  to  be  due,  not  to  the  simplicity  of  its  conditions,  but  to 
the  rigor  of  its  proofs ;  the  greatest  disciplinary  value  of  Latin 
would  appear  in  the  case,  not  of  those  who  disliked  it  and  found 
it  hard,  but  of  those  to  whom  it  was  a  charming  game." 

QUESTIONS 

I.  It  has  been  experimentally  determined  that  the  ease  with  which 
one  memorizes  one  set  of  facts  may  be  very  greatly  improved  without  a 
corresponding  improvement  in  ability  to  memorize  in  some  other  field. 
How  would  you  use  this  fact  to  refute  the  argument  that  we  possess  a 
general  faculty  of  memory? 


TRANSFER  OF  TRAINING  199 

2.  How  is  it  possible  for  a  man  to  reason  accurately  in  the  field  of 
engineering  and  yet  make  very  grave  mistakes  in  his  reasoning  about 
government  or  education? 

3.  What  assurance  have  we  that  skill  or  capacity  for  successful  work 
developed  in  one  situation  will  be  transferred  to  another  situation  involv- 
ing the  same  mental  processes  of  habit  formation,  reasoning,  imagination, 
and  the  like  ? 

4.  What  are  the  different  types  of  identity  which  make  possible  transfer 
of  training? 

5.  How  can  we  make  the  identity  of  methods  of  work  most  significant 
for  transfer  of  training  and  for  the  education  of  the  individual  ? 

6.  Why  do  ideals  which  seem  to  control  in  one  situation  fail  to  affect 
other  activities  in  which  the  same  ideal  is  called  for? 

7.  Under  what  conditions  may  a  very  slight  amount  of  transfer  of 
training  become  of  the  very  greatest  importance  f or  education  ? 

8.  Why  may  we  not  hope  for  the  largest  results  in  training  by  compel- 
ling children  to  study  that  which  is  distasteful  ?  Do  children  (or  adults) 
work  hardest  when  they  are  forced  to  attend  to  that  from  which  they 
derive  little  or  no  satisfaction  ? 

9.  Which  student  gets  the  most  significant  training  from  his  algebra, 
the  boy  who  enjoys  work  in  this  field  or  the  boy  who  worries  through  it 
because  algebra  is  required  for  graduation  from  the  high  school  ? 

10.  Why  may  we  hope  to  secure  more  significant  training  in  junior 
high  schools  which  offer  a  great  variety  of  courses  than  was  accomplished 
by  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  which  all  pupils  were  compelled  to 
study  the  same  subjects? 

11.  Why  is  Latin  a  good  subject  from  the  standpoint  of  training  for 
one  student  and  a  very  poor  subject  with  which  to  seek  to  educate  another 
student  ? 


XIII 
TYPES  OF  CLASSROOM  EXERCISES 

The  exercises  which  teachers  conduct  in  their  classrooms  do 
not  commonly  involve  a  single  type  of  mental  activity.  It  is 
true,  however,  that  certain  lessons  tend  to  involve  one  type  of 
activity  predominantly.  There  are  lessons  which  seek  pri- 
marily to  fix  habits,  others  in  which  thinking  of  the  inductive 
type  is  primarily  involved,  and  still  others  in  which  deductive 
thinking  or  appreciation  are  the  ends  sought.  As  has  already 
been  indicated  in  the  discussion  of  habit,  thinking,  and  appre- 
ciation in  the  previous  chapters,  these  types  of  mental  activity 
are  not  to  be  thought  of  as  separate  and  distinct.  Habit  forma- 
tion may  involve  thinking.  In  a  lesson  predominantly  inductive 
or  deductive,  some  element  of  drill  may  enter,  or  appreciation 
may  be  sought  with  respect  to  some  particular  part  of  the  situa- 
tion presented.  These  different  kinds  of  exercises,  drills,  think- 
ing (inductive  or  deductive),  and  appreciation  are  fairly  dis- 
tinct psychological  types. 

In  addition  to  the  psychological  types  of  exercises  mentioned 
above,  exercises  are  conducted  in  the  classroom  which  may  be 
designated  under  the  following  heads :  lecturing,  the  recitation 
lesson,  examination  and  review  lessons.  In  any  one  of  these 
the  mental  process  involved  may  be  any  of  those  mentioned 
above  as  belonging  to  the  purely  psychological  types  of  lessons  or 
a  combination  of  any  two  or  more  of  them.  It  has  seemed  worth 
while  to  treat  briefly  of  both  sorts  of  lesson  types,  and  to  dis- 
cuss at  some  length,  lecturing,  about  which  there  is  considerable 


TYPES  OF   CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  201 

disagreement,  and  the  additional  topic  of  questioning,  which  is 
the  means  employed  in  all  of  these  different  types  of  classroom 
exercises. 

The  Inductive  Lesson.  It  has  been  common  in  the  discussion 
of  the  inductive  development  lesson  to  classify  the  stages  through 
which  one  passes  from  his  recognition  of  a  problem  to  his  con- 
clusion in  five  steps.  These  divisions  have  commonly  been 
spoken  of  as  (i)  preparation;  (2)  presentation;  (3)  comparison 
and  abstraction;  (4)  generalization;  and  (5)  application.  It 
has  even  been  suggested  that  all  lessons  should  conform  to  this 
order  of  procedure.  From  the  discussions  in  the  previous  chap- 
ters, the  reader  will  understand  that  such  a  formal  method  of 
procedure  would  not  conform  to  what  we  know  about  mental 
activity  and  its  normal  exercise  and  development.  There  is 
some  advantage,  however,  in  thinking  of  the  general  order  of 
procedure  in  the  inductive  lesson  as  outlined  by  these  steps. 

The  step  of  preparation  has  to  do  with  making  clear  to  the 
pupil  the  aim  or  purpose  of  the  problem  with  which  he  is  to  deal. 
It  is  not  always  possible  in  the  classroom  to  have  children  at 
work  upon  just  such  problems  as  may  occur  to  them.  The 
orderly  development  of  a  subject  to  be  taught  requires  that  the 
teacher  discover  to  children  problems  or  purposes  which  may 
result  in  thinking.  The  skill  of  the  teacher  depends  upon  his 
knowledge  of  the  previous  experiences  of  the  children  in  the" 
class  and  his  skill  in  having  them  word  the  problem  which  re- 
mains unsolved  in  their  experience  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it 
attractive  to  them.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  children  never 
have  a  worthy  aim  unless  it  is  one  which  is  intellectually  stimu- 
lating.    A  problem  exists  only  when  we  desire  to  find  the  answer.^ 

The  term  ''presentation"  suggests  a  method  of  procedure 
which  we  would  not  want  to  follow  too  frequently ;  that  is,  we 
may  hope  not  simply  to  present  facts  for  acceptance  or  rejection, 
but,  rather,  we  want  children  to  search  for  the  data  which  they 


202  HOW  TO  TEACH 

may  need  in  solving  their  problem.  From  the  very  beginning 
of  their  school  career  children  need,  in  the  light  of  a  problem 
stated,  to  learn  to  utilize  all  of  the  possible  sources  of  informa- 
tion available.  Their  own  experience,  the  questions  which 
they  may  put  to  other  people,  observations  which  they  may  un- 
dertake with  considerable  care,  books  or  other  sources  of  in- 
formation which  they  may  consult,  all  are  to  be  thought  of  as 
tools  to  be  used  or  sources  of  information  available  for  the 
solution  of  problems.  It  cannot  be  too  often  reiterated  that  it 
is  not  simply  getting  facts,  reading  books,  performing  experi- 
ments, which  is  significant,  but,  rather,  which  of  these  opera- 
tions is  conducted  in  the  light  of  a  problem  clearly  conceived 
by  children. 

*  The  step  of  presentation,  as  above  described,  is  not  one  that 
may  be  begun  and  completed  before  other  parts  of  the  inductive 
lesson  are  carried  on.  As  soon  as  any  facts  are  available  they 
are  either  accepted  or  rejected,  as  they  may  help  in  the  solution 
of  the  problem;  comparisons  are  instituted,  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  likeness  are  noticed,  and  even  a  partial  solution  of 
the  problem  may  be  suggested  in  terms  of  a  new  generalization. 
The  student  may  then  begin  to  gather  further  facts,  to  pass 
through  further  steps  of  comparison,  and  to  make  still  further 
modifications  of  his  generalization  as  he  proceeds  in  his  work. 
At  any  stage  of  the  process  the  student  may  stop  to  apply  or 
test  the  validity  of*a  generalization  which  has  been  formed. 
It  is  even  true  that  the  statement  of  the  problem  with  which 
one  starts  may  be  modified  in  the  light  of  new  facts  found,  or 
new  analyses  instituted,  or  new  elements  of  likeness  which  have 
been  discovered. 

In  the  conduct  of  an  inductive  lesson  it  is  of  primary  impor- 
tance that  the  teacher  discover  to  children  problems,  the  solu- 
tions of  which  are  important  for  them,  that  he  guide  them  in 
so  far  as  it  is  possible  for  them  to  find  all  of  the  facts  necessary  in 


TYPES  OF  CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  203 

their  search  for  data,  that  he  encourage  them  to  discuss  with 
each  other,  even  to  the  extent  of  disagreeing,  with  respect  to 
comparisons  which  are  instituted  or  generaHzations  which  are 
premature,  and  above  all,  that  he  develop,  in  so  far  as  it  is  pos- 
sible, the  habit  of  verifying  conclusions. 

The  Deductive  Lesson.  The  interdependence  of  induction  and 
deduction  has  been  discussed  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  thinking. 
The  procedure  in  a  deductive  lesson  is  from  a  clear  recognition 
of  the  problem  involved,  through  the  analysis  of  the  situation 
and  abstraction  of  the  essential  elements,  to  a  search  for  the  laws 
or  principles  in  which  to  classify  the  particular  element  or  indi- 
vidual with  which  we  are  dealing,  to  a  careful  comparison  of 
this  particular  with  the  general  that  we  have  found,  to  our 
conclusion,  which  is  established  by  a  process  of  verification. 
Briefly  stated,  the  normal  order  of  procedure  might  be  indicated 
as  follows  :  (i)  finding  the  problem ;  (2)  finding  thq  generaliza- 
tion or  principles ;  (3)  inference ;  (4)  verification.  It  is  important 
in  this  type  of  exercise,  as  has  been  indicated  in  the  discussion 
of  the  inductive  lesson,  that  the  problem  be  made  clear.  So 
long  as  children  indulge  in  random  guesses  as  to  the  process 
which  is  involved  in  the  solution  of  a  problem  in  arithmetic,  or 
the  principle  which  is  to  be  invoked  in  science,  or  the  rule  which 
is  to  be  called  to  mind  in  explaining  a  grammatical  construction, 
we  may  take  it  for  granted  that  they  have  no  very  clear  con- 
ception of  the  process  through  which  they  must  pass,  nor  of 
the  issues  which  are  involved.  In  the  search  for  the  generaliza- 
tion or  principle  which  will  explain  the  problem,  a  process  of  ac- 
ceptance and  rejection  is  involved.  It  helps  children  to  state  defi- 
nitely, with  respect  to  a  problem  in  arithmetic,  that  they  know 
that  this  particular  principle  is  not  the  one  which  they  need. 
It  is  often  by  a  process  of  elimination  that  a  child  can  best 
explain  a  grammatical  construction,  either  in  English  or  in  a 
foreign  language.     Of  course  the  elimination  of  the  principle 


204  HOW  TO  TEACH 

or  law  which  is  not  the  right  one  means  simply  that  we  are  reduc- 
ing the  number  of  chances  of  making  a  mistake.  If  out  of  four 
possibilities  we  can  immediately  eliminate  two  of  them,  there 
are  only  two  left  to  be  considered.  After  children  have  dis- 
covered the  generalization  or  principle  involved,  it  is  well  to 
have  them  state  definitely  the  inference  which  they  make.  Just 
as  in  the  inductive  process  we  pass  almost  immediately  from  the 
step  of  comparison  and  abstraction  to  the  statement  of  general- 
ization, so  in  the  deductive  lesson,  when  once  we  have  related 
the  particular  case  under  consideration  to  the  principle  which 
explains  it,  we  are  ready  to  state  our  inference.  Verification 
involves  the  trying  out  of  our  inference  to  see  that  it  certainly 
will  hold.  This  may  be  done  by  proposing  some  other  inference 
which  we  find  to  be  invalid,  or  by  seeking  to  find  any  other 
law  or  principle  which  will  explain  our  particular  situation. 
Here  again,  as  in  the  inductive  lesson,  the  skillful  teacher  makes 
his  greatest  contribution  by  having  children  become  increasingly 
caroful  in  this  step  of  verification.  Almost  any  one  can  pass 
through  the  several  stages  involved  in  deductive  thinking  and 
arrive  at  a  wrong  conclusion.  That  which  distinguishes  the 
careful  thinker  from  the  careless  student  is  the  sincerity  of  the 
former  in  his  unwillingness  to  accept  his  conclusions  until  they 
are  verified. 

The  Drill  Lesson.  The  drill  lesson  is  so  clearly  a  matter  of 
fixing  habits  that  little  needs  to  be  added  to  the  chapter  dealing 
with  this  subject.  If  one  were  to  attempt  to  give  in  order  the 
steps  of  the  process  involved,  they  might  be  stated  as  follows : 
(i)  estabHshing  a  motive  for  forming  the  habit;  (2)  knowing 
exactly  what  we  wish  to  do,  or  the  habit  or  skill  to  be  acquired ; 
(3)  recognition  of  the  importance  of  the  focusing  of  attention 
during  the  period  devoted  to  repetitions ;  (4)  variation  in  prac- 
tice in  order  to  lessen  fatigue  and  to  help  to  fix  attention ;  (5)  a 
recognition  of  the  danger  of  making  mistakes,  with  consequent 


TYPES   OF   CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  205 

provision  against  lapses ;  (6)  the  principle  of  review,  which  may 
be  stated  best  by  suggesting  that  the  period  between  practice 
exercises  may  only  gradually  be  lengthened. 

Possibly  the  greatest  deficiency  in  drill  work,  as  commonly 
conducted,  is  found  in  the  tendency  upon  the  part  of  some 
teachers  to  depend  upon  repetition  involving  many  mistakes. 
This  is  due  quite  frequently  to  the  assignment  of  too  much  to 
be  accomplished.  Twenty-five  words  in  spelling,  a  whole  mul- 
tiplication table,  a  complete  conjugation  in  Latin,  all  suggest 
the  danger  of  mistakes  which  will  be  difficult  to  eliminate  later 
on.  The  wise  teacher  is  the  one  who  provides  very  carefully 
against  mistakes  upon  the  part  of  pupils.  He  assigns  a  minimum 
number  of  words,  or  a  number  of  combinations,  or  a  part  of  a 
conjugation,  and  takes  care  to  discover  that  children  are  sure 
of  themselves  before  indulging  in  that  practice  which  is  to  fix 
the  habit. 

In  much  of  the  drill  work  there  is,  of  course,  the  desirability 
of  gaining  in  speed.  In  this  field  successful  teachers  have 
discovered  that  much  is  gained  by  more  or  less  artificial  stimuli 
which  seem  to  be  altogether  outside  of  the  work  required  to  form 
a  habit.  In  drill  on  column  addition  successful  work  is  done 
by  placing  the  problem  on  the  board  and  following  through  the 
combinations  by  pointing  the  pointer  and  making  a  tap  on  the 
board  as  one  proceeds  through  the  column.  Concert  work  of 
this  sort  seems  to  have  the  effect  of  speeding  up  those  who  would 
ordinarily  lag,  even  though  they  might  get  the  right  result. 
The  most  skillful  teachers  of  typewriting  count  or  clap  their 
hands  or  use  the  phonograph  for  the  sake  of  speeding  up  their 
students.  They  have  discovered  that  the  same  amount  of  time 
devoted  to  typewriting  practice  will  produce  anywhere  from 
twenty-five  to  one  hundred  per  cent  more  speed  under  such 
artificial  stimulation  as  they  were  in  the  habit  of  getting  merely 
by   asking   the    students    to   practice.     These   experiences,    of 


2o6  HOW  TO  TEACH 

course,  suggest  that  drill  work  will  require  an  expenditure  of 
energy  and  an  alertness  upon  the  part  of  teachers,  and  not  merely 
an  assignment  of  work  to  be  done  by  pupils. 

Appreciation  Lesson.  The  work  which  the  teacher  does  in 
securing  appreciation  has  been  suggested  in  a  previous  chapter. 
It  will  suffice  here  briefly  to  state  what  may  be  thought  of  as 
the  order  of  procedure  in  securing  appreciation.  It  is  not  as 
easy  in  this  case  to  state  the  development  in  terms  of  particular 
steps  or  processes,  since,  as  has  already  been  indicated  in  the 
chapter  on  appreciation,  the  student  is  passive  rather  than  ac- 
tive, is  contemplating  and  enjoying,  rather  than  attacking  and 
working  to  secure  a  particular  result.  The  work  of  the  teacher 
may,  however,  be  organized  around  the  following  heads :  (i) 
it  is  of  primary  importance  that  the  teacher  bring  to  the  class 
an  enthusiasm  and  joy  for  the  picture,  music,  poetry,  person, 
or  achievement  which  he  wishes  to  present ;  (2)  children  must 
not  be  forced  to  accept  nor  even  encouraged  to  repeat  the  evalu- 
ation determined  by  teachers;  (3)  spontaneous  and  sincere 
response  upon  tiie  part  of  children  should  be  accepted,  even 
though  it  may  not  conform  to  the  teacher's  estimate ;  (4)  chil- 
dren should  be  encouraged  to  choose  from  among  many  of  the 
forms  or  situations  presented  for  their  approval  those  which 
they  like  best ;  (5)  the  technique  involved  in  the  creation  of  the 
artistic  form  should  be  subordinated  to  enjoyment  in  the  field 
of  the  fine  arts ;  (6)  throughout,  the  play  spirit  should  be  pre- 
dominant, for  if  the  element  of  drudgery  enters,  appreciation 
disappears. 

Teachers  who  get  good  results  in  appreciation  secure  them 
mainly  by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  they  have  large  capacity  for  en- 
joyment in  the  fields  which  they  present  to  children.  A  teacher 
who  is  enthusiastic,  and  who  really  finds  great  joy  in  music, 
will  awaken  and  develop  power  of  appreciation  upon  the  part 
of  his  pupils.     The  teacher  who  can  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the 


TYPES  OF  CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  207 

child  poetry,  or  of  the  fairy  tale,  will  get  a  type  of  appreciation 
not  enjoyed  by  the  teacher  who  finds  delight  only  in  adult  liter- 
ature. It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  recognize  the  fact  that 
children  only  gradually  grow  from  an  appreciation  or  joy  in 
that  which  is  crude  to  that  which  represents  the  highest  type  of 
artistic  production.  It  is  important  to  have  children  try  them- 
selves out  in  creative  work ;  but  the  influence  of  a  teacher  may  be 
far  greater  than  that  of  the  attempts  of  the  children  to  produce 
in  these  fields. 

Lecturing.  Among  the  various  types  of  methods  used  in 
teaching  there  is  probably  no  one  which  has  received  such  severe 
criticism  as  the  so-called  lecture  method.  The  result  of  this 
criticism  has  been,  theoretically  at  least,  to  abolish  lecturing 
from  the  elementary  school  and  to  diminish  the  use  of  this  method 
in  the  high  school,  although  in  the  colleges  and  universities  it  is 
still  the  most  popular  method.  Although  it  is  true  that  the 
lecture  method  is  not  the  best  one  for  continual  use  in  elementary 
and  high  school,  still  its  entire  disuse  is  unfortunate.  So  is  its 
blind  use  by  those  who  still  adhere  to  the  old  ways  of  doing 
things. 

The  chief  criticisms  of  the  method  are,  first,  that  it  makes  of 
the  learner  a  mere  recipient  instead  of  a  thinker ;  second,  that 
the  material  so  gained  does  not  become  part  of  the  mental  life 
of  the  hearers  and  so  is  not  so  well  remembered  nor  so  easily 
applied  as  material  gained  in  other  ways;  third,  that  the  in- 
structor has  no  means  of  determining  whether  his  class  is  getting 
the  right  ideas  or  wholly  false  ones;  fourth,  the  method  lacks 
interest  in  the  majority  of  cases.  Despite  the  truth  of  these 
criticisms,  there  are  occasions  when  the  lecture  or  telling  method 
is  the  best  one  —  in  fact  the  only  one  that  can  accomplish  the 
desired  result. 

First,  the  lecture  method  may  sometimes  take  the  place  of 
books.     Often,  even  in  the  elementary  school,  there  is  need  for 


2o8  HOW  TO  TEACH 

the  children  to  get  facts,  —  information  in  history  or  geography 
or  Uterature,  —  and  the  getting  of  these  facts  from  books  would 
be  too  difficult  or  too  wasteful.  In  such  a  case  telling  the  facts 
is  certainly  the  best  way  to  give  them.  A  teacher  in  half  a 
period  can  give  material  that  it  might  take  the  children  hours 
to  find.  By  telling  them  the  facts,  he  not  only  saves  waste  of 
time,  but  also  retains  the  interest.  Very  often  discouragement 
and  even  dislike  results  from  a  prolonged  search  for  a  few  facts. 
Of  course  in  the  higher  schools,  when  the  material  to  be  given 
is  not  in  print,  when  the  professor  is  the  source  of  certain  theories, 
methods,  and  explanations,  lecturing  is  the  only  way  for  students 
to  get  the  material.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  human 
beings  are  naturally  a  source  of  interest,  particularly  to  children, 
and  therefore  having  the  teacher  tell,  other  things  being  equal, 
will  make  a  greater  impression  than  reading  it  in  a  book. 

Second,  the  lecture  method  is  valuable  as  a  means  of  explana- 
tion. Despite  the  fact  that  the  material  given  may  be  adapted 
to  the  child's  level  of  development,  still  it  often  happens  that  it 
is  not  clear.  Then,  instead  of  sending  the  child  to  the  same 
material  again,  an  explanation  by  teacher  or  fellow  pupil  is  much 
better.  It  may  be  just  the  inflection  used,  or  the  choice  of 
different  words,  that  will  clear  up  the  difficulty. 

Third,  the  teUing  method  should  be  used  for  illustration. 
Very  often  when  illustration  is  necessary  the  lecture  method  is 
supplemented  by  illustrative  material  of  various  types  —  objects, 
experiments,  pictures,  models,  diagrams,  and  so  on.  None  of 
this  material,  however,  is  used  to  its  best  advantage  unless  it  is 
accompanied  by  the  telling  method.  It  is  through  the  telling 
that  the  essentials  of  the  illustrative  material  gain  the  proper 
perspective.  7  Without  such  explanation  some  unimportant 
detail  may  focus  the  attention  and  the  value  of  the  material 
be  lost.  It  has  been  customary  to  emphasize  the  need  for  and 
the  value  of  this  concrete  illustrative  material.    Teachers  have 


TYPES  OF  CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  209 

felt  that  if  it  was  possible  to  have  the  actual  object,  it  should 
be  obtained ;  if  that  was  not  possible,  why  then  have  pictures,  but 
diagrams  and  words  should  only  be  used  as  a  last  resort.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  value  of  the  concrete  material,  espe- 
cially with  little  children  —  but  its  use  has  been  carried  to  an 
extreme  because  it  has  been  used  blindly.  For  instance,  some- 
times the  concrete  material  because  of  its  general  inherent 
interest,  or  because  of  its  special  appeal  to  some  instinct,  at- 
tracts the  attention  of  the  child  in  such  a  way  that  the  point 
which  was  to  be  illustrated  is  lost  sight  of.  Witness  work  in 
nature  study  in  the  lower  grades,  and  in  chemistry  in  the  high 
school.  The  concrete  material  may  be  so  complex  that  again 
the  essential  point  is  lost  in  the  mass  of  detail.  No  perspective 
can  be  obtained  because  of  the  complexity  —  witness  work 
with  principles  of  machines  in  physics  and  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  in  biology.  Sometimes  the  diagram  or  word  explanation 
with  nothing  of  the  more  concrete  material  is  the  best  type  of 
illustration.-^  A  fresh  application  of  the  principle  or  lesson  by 
the  teacher  is  another  means  of  illustration  and  one  of  the  best, 
for  it  not  only  broadens  the  student's  point  of  view  and  gives 
another  cue  to  the  material,  but  it  may  also  make  direct  con- 
nection with  his  own  experience.  Illustrations  in  the  book 
often  fail  to  do  this,  but  the  teacher  knowing  his  particular 
class  can  make  the  application  that  will  mean  most.  Telling 
a  story  or  incident  is  another  way  of  illustration.  The  personal 
element  is  nearly  always  present  in  this  means,  and  is  a  valuable 
spur  to  interest. 

Illustrations  of  all  kinds,  from  the  concrete  to  the  story  form, 
haveTDeen  grossly  misused  in  teaching,  so  that  to-day  teachers 
are  almost  afraid  to  use  any.  The  difficulty  has  been  that 
illustrations  have  been  used  as  a  means  of  regaining  wandering 
attention.  It  has  been  the  sugar-coating.  The  illustration, 
then,  has  become  the  important  thing  and  the  material  non- 


2IO  HOW  TO  TEACH 

important.  The  class  has  watched  the  experiment  or  listened 
to  the  story,  but  when  that  was  over  the  attention  was  gone 
again.  Hlustrations  should  not  be  the  means  of  holding  the  at- 
tention ;  that  is  the  function  of  the  material  itself.  If  the  lesson 
cannot  hold  the  interest,  illustrations  are  worse  than  useless. 
Illustrations,  then,  of  all  kinds  must  be  subordinated  to  the 
material  —  they  are  only  a  means  to  an  end,  and  that  end  is 
a  better  understanding  of  the  material.  Illustrations,  further, 
should  have  a  vital,  necessary  connection  with  the  point  they 
are  used  to  make  clearer.  Illustrations  that  are  dragged  in, 
that  are  not  vitally  connected  with  the  point,  are  entirely  out 
of  place.  If  illustrations  always  truly  illustrated,  then  children 
would  not  remember  the  illustration  and  forget  the  point,  for 
remembering  the  illustration  they  would  be  led  directly  to  the 
the  point  because  of  the  closeness  of  the  connection. 

Fourth,  telling  or  lecturing  is  the  best  way  to  get  apprecia- 
tion. This  was  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  appreciation,  so 
need  only  be  mentioned  here.  The  interpretation  by  the  teacher 
of  the  character,  the  picture,  the  poem,  the  policy,  or  what  not, 
not  only  increases  the  understanding  of-  the  Hstener,  but  also 
calls  up  feehng  responses.  It  is  in  this  telling  that  the  personality 
of  the  teacher,  his  experiences,  his  ideals,  make  themselves 
felt.  One  can  often  win  appreciation  of  and  allegiance  to  the 
best  in  life  by  the  use  of  the  telling  method  in  the  appropriate 
situations. 

Fifth,  the  lecture  method  should  sometimes  be  used  as  a  means 
of  getting  the  desired  mental  attitude.  The  general  laws  of 
learning  emphasize  the  importance  of  the  mind's  set  as  a  condition 
to  readiness  of  neurone  tracts.  Five  or  ten  minutes  spent  at 
the  beginning  of  a  subject,  or  a  new  section  of  work,  in  intro- 
ducing the  class  to  it,  may  give  the  keynote  for  the  whole  course. 
A  whole  period  may  profitably  be  spent  this  way.  Not  only 
will  the  telHng  method  used  on  such  occasions  give  the  right 


TYPES  OF  CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  2ii 

emotional  attitude  towards  a  subject,  but  also  the  right  intel- 
lectual set  as  well. 

It  is  evident  then  that  the  lecture  or  telling  method  has  its 
place  in  all  parts  of  the  educational  system,  but  its  place  should 
be  clearly  and  definitely  recognized.  The  danger  is  not  in 
using  it,  but  in  using  it  at  the  wrong  time,  and  in  overusing  it. 
Bearing  in  mind  the  dangers  that  adhere  to  its  use,  it  is  always 
well,  whether  the  method  is  used  in  grades  or  in  college,  to  mix 
it  with  other  methods  or  to  follow  it  by  another  method  that 
will  do  the  things  that  the  lecture  method  may  have  left 
undone. 

The  Recitation  Lesson.  As  has  been  suggested  in  the  opening 
of  this  chapter,  the  recitation  lesson  is  not  a  type  involving  any 
particular  psychological  process.  It  is,  rather,  a  method  of 
procedure  which  may  involve  any  of  the  other  types  of  work 
already  discussed.  When  the  recitation  lesson  means  merely 
reciting  paragraphs  from  the  book  with  little  or  no  reference 
to  problems  to  be  solved  or  skill  to  be  developed,  it  has  no  place 
in  a  schoolroom.  When,  however,  the  teacher  uses  the  recita- 
tion lesson  as  an  exercise  in  which  he  assures  himself  that  facts 
needed  for  further  progress  in  thinking  have  been  secured,  or 
that  habits  have  been  established,  or  verbatim  memorization 
accomplished,  this  type  of  exercise  is  justified.  It  is  well  to 
remember  that  the  thought  process  involved  in  the  development 
of  a  subject,  or  the  solution  even  of  a  single  problem,  may  extend 
over  many  class  periods.  The  recitation  lesson  may  be  impor- 
tant in  organizing  the  material  which  is  to  be  used  in  the  larger 
thought  whole.  Again,  this  type  of  exercise  may  involve  the 
presentation  of  material  which  is  to  be  used  as  a  basis  for  appre- 
ciation in  literature,  in  music,  in  art,  in  history,  and  the  like. 
The  organization  of  experiences  of  children,  whether  secured 
through  observations,  discussions,  or  from  books,  around  cer- 
tain topics  may  furnish  a  most  satisfactory  basis  for  the  develop- 


212  HOW  TO  TEACH 

ment  of  problems  or  of  the  gathering  of  the  material  essential 
for  their  solution.  A  better  understanding  of  the  conditions 
which  make  for  success  in  habit  formation,  in  thinking,  and  the 
development  of  appreciation,  will  tend  to  eliminate  from  our 
schools  that  type  of  exercise  in  which  teachers  ask  merely  that 
children  recite  to  them  what  they  have  been  able  to  remember 
from  the  books  which  they  have  read  or  the  lectures  which  they 
have  heard. 

The  Examination  and  Review  Lessons.  In  the  establishment 
of  habits,  the  development  of  appreciation,  or  the  growth  in 
understanding  which  we  seek  to  secure  through  thinking,  there 
will  be  many  occasions  for  checking  up  our  work.  Successful 
teaching  requires  that  the  habit  that  we  think  we  have  estab- 
lished be  called  for  and  additional  practice  given  from  time  to 
time  in  order  to  be  certain  that  it  is  fixed.  In  like  manner,  the 
development  of  our  thought  in  any  field  is  not  something  which 
is  accomplished  without  respect  to  later  neglect.  We,  rather, 
build  a  system  of  thought  with  reference  to  a  particular  field  or 
subject  as  a  result  of  thinking,  and  rethinking  through  the  many 
different  situations  which  are  involved.  In  like  manner,  in 
the  field  of  appreciation  the  very  essence  of  our  enjoyment  is  to 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  that  which  we  have  enjoyed  we  recall, 
and  strengthen  our  appreciation  through  the  revival  of  the  expe- 
rience. The  review  is,  of  course,  most  successful  when  it  is  not 
simply  going  over  the  whole  material  in  exactly  the  same  way. 
In  habit  formation  it  is  often  advisable  to  arrange  in  a  different 
order  the  stimuli  which  are  to  bring  the  desired  responses,  for 
the  very  essence  of  habit  formation  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
particular  response  can  be  secured  regardless  of  the  order  in 
which  they  are  called  for.  In  thinking,  as  a  subject  is  developed, 
our  control  is  measured  by  the  better  perspective  which  we 
secure.  This  means,  of  course,  that  in  review  we  will  not  be 
eoncerned  with  reviving  all  of  the  processes  through  which  we 


TYPES  OF   CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  213 

have  passed,  but,  rather,  in  a  reorganization  quite  different 
from  that  which  was  originally  provided. 

The  examination  lesson  is  classified  here  as  of  the  same  type 
as  the  review  because  a  good  examination  involves  all  that  has 
been  suggested  by  review.  The  writer  has  no  sympathy  with 
those  who  argue  against  examinations.  The  only  proof  that 
we  can  get  of  the  success  or  failure  of  our  work  is  to  be  found  in 
the  achievement  of  pupils.  It  is  not  desirable  to  set  aside  a 
particular  period  of  a  week  devoted  entirely  to  examinations, 
because  examinations  in  all  subjects  cannot  to  best  advantage 
be  given  during  the  same  period.  There  are  stages  in  the  de- 
velopment of  our  thinking,  or  in  the  acquiring  of  skill,  or  in 
our  understanding  and  appreciation  which  occur  at  irregular 
intervals  and  which  call  for  a  summing  up  of  what  has  gone 
before,  in  order  that  we  may  be  sure  of  success  in  the  work  which 
is  to  follow.  It  is,  of  course,  undesirable  to  devote  a  whole 
week  to  examinations  on  account  of  the  strain  and  excitement 
under  which  children  labor.  It  is  entirely  possible  to  know  of 
the  achievements  of  children  through  examinations  which  have 
been  given  at  irregular  intervals  throughout  the  term.  It  would 
be  best,  probably,  never  to  give  more  than  one  examination 
on  any  one  day,  and,  as  a  rule,  to  devote  only  the  regular  class 
period  to  such  work.  In  another  chapter  the  discussion  of 
more  exact  methods  of  measuring  the  achievements  of  children 
will  be  discussed  at  some  length. 

In  all  of  the  lesson  types  mentioned  above,  one  of  the  most 
important  means  employed  by  teachers  for  the  stimulation  of 
pupils  is  the  question.  It  seems  wise,  therefore,  to  devote  some 
paragraphs  to  a  consideration  of  questioning  as  determining 
skill  in  teaching. 

Questioning.  The  purpose  of  a  question  is  to  serve  as  a  situa- 
tion which  shall  arouse  to  activity  certain  nerve  connections 
and  thus  bring  a  response.     Questions,  oral  or  written,  are  the 


214  HOW  TO  TEACH 

chief  tools  used  in  schools  to  gain  responses.  In  some  situations 
it  is  the  only  means  a  teacher  may  have  of  arousing  the  response. 
Psychologically,  then,  the  value  of  the  question  must  be  judged 
by  the  response. 

Questions  may  be  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
kind  of  response  they  call  for.  Probably  the  most  common 
kind  of  question  is  the  one  that  calls  for  facts  as  answers.  It 
involves  memory  —  but  memory  of  a  rote  type.  It  does  not 
require  thinking.  All  drill  questions  are  of  this  type.  The 
connections  aroused  are  definitely  final  in  a  certain  order,  and 
the  question  simply  sets  off  the  train  of  bonds  that  leads  directly 
to  the  answer.  Another  type  of  question  involving  the  memory 
process  is  the  one  which  initiates  recall,  but  here  thought  is 
active.  The  answer  cannot  be  gained  in  a  mechanical  way, 
but  selection  and  rejection  are  involved.  The  answer  is  to  be 
found  by  examining  past  experience,  but  only  in  a  thoughtful 
way.  Questions  which  call  for  comparison  form  another  type- 
These  may  vary  from  those  which  involve  the  comparison  of 
sense  material  to  those  which  involve  the  comparison  of  policies 
or  epochs.  Words,  characters,  plots,  definitions,  plans,  sub- 
jects —  everything  with  which  intellectual  life  deals  is  open  to 
comparison.  Comparison  is  one  of  the  steps  in  the  process  of 
reasoning,  and  hence  questions  of  this  type  are  extremely  im- 
portant. Then  there  are  the  questions  which  arouse  the  re- 
sponse of  analysis.  These  questions  vary  among  themselves 
according  to  the  type  of  analysis  needed,  whether  piecemeal 
attention  or  analysis  due  to  varying  concomitants.  The  former 
drives  the  thinker  through  gradual  recognition  and  elimination 
of  the  known  elements  to  a  consciousness  of  the  only  partly 
known.  The  latter,  by  attracting  the  attention  to  unvarying 
factors  in  the  changing  situations,  forces  out  the  new  and  until 
then  unknown  element.  Some  questions  require  judgment  as  a 
response.     The  judgment  may  be  one  concerning  relationships, 


TYPES  OF   CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  215 

or  concerning  worth  or  value,  or  be  merely  a  matter  of  definition 
—  all  questions  calling  for  criticism  are  of  this  type.  In  any 
case  this  type  of  question  involves  the  thought  element  at  its 
best.  The  question  requiring  organization  forms  another  type. 
There  is  no  sharp  line  of  division  between  these  types  of  ques- 
tions. No  one  of  them  should  be  used  exclusively.  Some  of 
them  imply  operations  of  a  simple  type  as  well  as  the  particular 
response  demanded  by  that  form.  For  instance,  some  of  the 
questions  involving  analysis  imply  comparison  and  recalling. 
A  judgment  question  might  call  for  all  the  simple  processes 
noted  above  and  others  as  well.  The  responses  then  vary  in 
complexity  and  difficulty.  The  order  of  advance  in  both  com- 
plexity and  difficulty  of  the  response  is  from  the  mere  drill 
question  to  the  judgment  question. 

Another  type  of  question  is  the  one  which  desires  appreciation 
as  a  response.  This  question  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  to 
frame,  for  it  must  tend  to  inhibit  the  critical  attitude  and  by 
means  of  the  associations  it  arouses  or  its  own  suggestive  power 
get  the  appreciative  response.  Questions  of  this  type  often 
call  for  constructive  imagery  as  a  means  to  the  desired  end. 
Some  questions  are  directive  in  their  tendency.  They  require 
as  response  an  attitude  or  set  of  the  mind.  They  set  the  child 
thinking  in  this  direction  rather  than  that.  In  a  sense  they  are 
suggestive,  but  they  suggest  the  line  of  search  rather  than  the 
response.  A  final  type  of  question  is  akin  to  the  one  just  dis- 
cussed —  the  question  whose  response  is  further  questions. 
Here  again  the  response  desired  is  an  attitude,  but  in  this  case 
it  is  more  than  an  attitude,  it  is  also  a  definite  response  that 
shall  come  in  the  form  of  questions.  The  questions  of  a  good 
teacher  should  result  in  students  asking  questions  both  of  people 
and  of  books.  These  last  three  types  of  questions  are  perhaps 
the  most  difficult  of  all.  Because  of  their  complexity  and 
subtlety  they  often  miss  fire  and  fail  of  their  purpose.     Properly 


2i6  HOW  TO  TEACH 

handled  they  are  among  the  most  powerful  tools  a  teacher  has. 
The  type  of  question  used  must  vary,  not  only  with  the  partic- 
ular group  of  children,  and  the  type  of  lesson,  but  also  with 
the  subject.  Questions  that  would  be  the  best  type  in  mathe- 
matics might  not  be  so  good  for  an  art  lesson.  The  kinds  of 
questions  used  must  be  adapted  to  the  particular  situation. 

Psychologically  a  question  is  valuable  not  only  in  accordance 
with  the  kind  of  response  it  gets,  but  also  in  proportion  to  the 
readiness  of  the  response.  A  question  that  is  of  such  a  char- 
acter that  the  response  is  hazy,  stumbling,  hesitating  —  a  ques- 
tion that  brings  no  clear-cut  response  because  the  child  does 
not  understand  what  is  wanted,  is  a  poor  question.  This  does 
not  at  all  mean  that  the  right  response  must  always  come  im- 
mediately. Some  of  the  best  questions  are  put  with  the  inten- 
tion of  forcing  the  child  to  realize  that  he  can't  answer  —  that 
he  doesn't  know.  If  that  type  of  response  comes  to  that  ques- 
tion, it  is  the  best  possible  answer.  Nor  need  the  whole  answer 
come  immediately.  For  instance,  in  many  of  the  judgment 
questions  the  thinking  process  aroused  may  take  some  time 
before  the  judgment  is  reached,  and  meanwhile  several  partial 
answers  may  be  given.  But  if  the  question  asked  started  the 
process,  without  waste  of  time  in  trying  to  find  out  what  it 
meant,  the  question  is  good.  With  these  explanations,  then, 
>the  second  qualification  of  a  good  question  is  that  it  secures 
the  appropriate  response  readily.  In  order  to  do  this,  these 
factors  must  be  considered  :  First,  the  principle  of  apperception 
must  be  recognized.  Every  question  must  deal  with  material 
that  is  on  a  level  with  the  stage  of  development  of  the  one 
questioned.  Not  only  so,  but  the  question  must  connect  some- 
where with  the  learner's  experience.  This  means  a  recognition 
also  of  individual  differences.  The  question  must  also  be 
couched  in  language  that  can  be  understood  easily  by  the  one 
questioned.     To  have  to  try  to  understand  the  language  of  the 


TYPES  OF   CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  217 

question  as  well  as  the  question,  results  in  divided  attention 
and  delayed  responses.  Second,  the  question  should  be  clear 
and  definite.  A  question  that  has  these  characteristics  will 
challenge  the  attention  of  the  class.  It  is  directed  straight 
at  the  point  at  issue,  and  no  time  will  be  lost  in  wondering  what 
the  question  means,  or  in  trying  two  or  three  tentative  answers. 
Third,  the  younger  the  child,  the  simpler  the  question  must 
be.  With  little  children,  to  be  good  a  question  may  involve 
only  one  idea,  or  relationship.  The  amount  involved  in  the 
question,  its  scope  and  content,  must  be  adapted  to  the  mental 
development  of  the  learner.  It  is  only  a  mature  thinker  who 
can  carry  simultaneously  two  or  three  points  of  issue,  or  possi- 
bilities. Fourth,  the  question  to  gain  a  ready  response  must 
be  interesting.  Not  only  must  the  lesson  as  a  whole  be  inter- 
esting, but  the  questions  themselves  must  have  the  same  quality. 
Dull  questions  can  kill  an  otherwise  good  lesson.  The  form  of 
the  question  is  thus  a  big  factor  in  gaining  a  ready  response. 
All  the  qualities  which  gain  involuntary  attention  can  be  used 
in  framing  an  interesting  question  —  novelty,  exaggeration, 
contrast,  life,  color,  and  so  on. 

The  third  point  to  be  considered  in  determining  a  good  ques--' 
tion  is  whether  or  not  it  satisfies  the  demands  of  economy.  This 
demand  is  a  fair  one  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the  best  use 
of  the  time  at  the  disposal  of  the  learner,  and  also  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  best  means  of  gaining  the  greatest  development 
on  the  part  of  the  learner  in  a  given  time.  The  number  of  ques- 
tions asked  thus  enters  in  as  a  factor.  When  a  teacher  asks 
four  or  five  questions  when  one  would  serve  the  same  purpose, 
she  is  not  only  wasting  time,  but  the  child  is  not  getting  the 
opportunity  to  do  any  thinking  and  therefore  is  not  developing. 
Recent  studies  on  the  actual  number  of  questions  asked  in  a 
recitation  point  to  the  conclusion  that  economy  both  of  time 
and  in  development  is  being  seriously  overlooked.     Economy 


2i8  HOW  TO  TEACH 

in  response  may  also  be  brightened  by  preserving  a  logical  se- 
quence between  questions.  It  is  a  matter  of  fact  in  psychology 
that  associations  are  systematized  about  central  ideas;  it  is 
also  a  fact  that  the  set  of  the  mind,  in  this  direction  rather  than 
that,  is  characteristic  of  all  work.  Logical  sequence,  then,  makes 
use  of  both  these  facts  —  both  of  the  systematization  of  ideas 
and  of  the  mental  attitude. 
/  The  fourth  test  of  good  questioning  is  the  universality  of 
its  appeal.  Some  questions  which  are  otherwise  good  appeal 
but  to  comparatively  few  in  the  class.  This,  of  course,  means 
that  responses  are  being  gained  but  from  few.  The  best  ques- 
tioning stimulates  most  of  the  class ;  all  members  of  the  class  are 
working.  In  order  to  secure  this  result  the  questions  must  be 
properly  distributed  over  the  class.  The  bright  pupils  must 
not  be  allowed  to  do  all  the  work ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  all  the 
attention  of  the  teachers  must  not  be  given  to  the  dull  pupils. 
Not  only  should  the  questions  be  well  distributed,  but  they 
must  vary  according  to  the  individual  ability  of  the  particular 
child.  This  has  already  been  emphasized  in  dealing  with  readi- 
ness of  response.  Many  a  lesson  has  been  unsuccessful  because 
the  teacher  gave  too  difficult  a  question  to  a  dull  child,  and  while 
she  was  struggling  with  him,  she  lost  the  rest  of  the  class.  The 
reverse  is  also  true,  to  give  a  bright  child  a  question  that  requires 
almost  no  thinking  means  that  a  mechanical  answer  will  be 
given  and  no  further  activity  stimulated.  The  extent  to  which 
all  the  class  are  mentally  active  is  one  measure  of  a  good  question. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  an  example  of  a  lesson  which  you  have  taught  which  was  pre- 
dominantly inductive.  Show  how  you  proceeded  from  the  discovery  of 
the  problem  to  your  pupils  to  the  solution  attained. 

2.  What  is  involved  in  the  "step"  of  presentation? 

3.  Why  may  we  not  consider  the  several  "steps"  of  the  inductive 
lesson  as  occurring  in  a  definite  and  mutually  exclusive  sequence  ? 


TYPES  OF   CLASSROOM  EXERCISES  219 

4.  In  what  respect  is  the  procedure  in  a  deductive  lesson  like  that 
which  you  follow  in  an  inductive  lesson  ? 

5.  Show  how  verification  is  an  important  element  in  both  inductive 
and  deductive  lessons. 

6.  Give  illustrations  of  successful  drill  lessons  and  make  clear  the 
reason  for  the  degree  of  success  achieved. 

7.  What  measures  have  you  found  most  advantageous  in  securing 
speed  in  drill  work  ? 

8.  What  are  the  elements  which  make  for  success  in  an  appreciation 
lesson  ? 

9.  Upon  what  grounds  and  to  what  extent  can  lecturing  be  defended 
as  a  method  of  instruction  ? 

10.  What  may  be  the  relation  between  a  good  recitation  lesson  and  the 
solution  of  a  problem?     Growth  in  power  of  appreciation? 

11.  For  what  purposes  should  examinations  be  given?    When  should 
examinations  be  given  ? 

12.  When  are  questions  which  call  for  facts  justified? 

13.  Why  are  questions  which  call  for  comparisons  to  be  considered 
important  ? 

14.  Why  is  it  important  to  phrase  questions  carefully? 

15.  Why  should  a  teacher  ask  some  questions  which  cannot  be  answered 
immediately  ? 

16.  What  criteria  would  you  apply  in  testing  the  questions  which  you 
put  to  your  class  ? 

17.  Write  five  questions  which  in  your  judgment  will  demand  thinking 
upon  some  topic  which  you  plan  to  teach  to  your  class. 


XIV 

HOW  TO   STUDY 

The  term  study  has  been  used  very  loosely  by  both  teachers 
and  children.  As  used  by  teachers  it  frequently  meant  some- 
thing very  different  from  what  children  had  in  mind  when  they 
used  it.  Further,  teachers  themselves  have  often  used  the  term 
in  connection  with  mental  activities  which,  technically  speaking, 
could  not  possibly  come  under  that  head.  Much  confusion  and 
lack  of  efficient  work  has  been  the  result.  Recently  various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  give  the  term  study  a  more 
exact  meaning.  McMurry  defines  it  as  ''  the  work  that  is  neces- 
sary in  the  assimilation  of  ideas"  —  'Hhe  vigorous  application 
of  the  mind  to  a  subject  for  the  satisfaction  of  a  felt  need."  In 
other  words,  study  is  thinking.  Psychologically,  what  makes 
for  good  thinking  makes  for  good  study.  Study  is  controlled 
mental  activity  working  towards  the  reaHzation  of  a  goal.  It  is 
the  adaptation  of  means  to  end,  in  the  attempt  to  satisfy  a  felt 
need.  It  involves  a  definite  purpose  or  goal,  which  is  prob- 
lematic, the  selection  and  rejection  of  suggestions,  tentative 
judgments,  and  conclusion.  The  mind  of  the  one  who  studies  is 
active,  vigorously  active,  not  in  an  aimless  fashion,  but  along 
sharply  defined  lines.  This  is  the  essential  characteristic  of  all 
study. 

There  are,  however,  various  types  of  study  which  differ  ma- 
terially from  each  other  according  to  the  subject  matter  or  to 
the  type  of  response  required.  Some  study  involves  compara- 
tively Httle  thinking.  The  directed  activity  must  be  present, 
but  the  choice,  the  judgment,  may  need  to  be  exercised  only  in 

220 


HOW  TO  STUDY  221 

the  beginning  when  methods  of  procedure  need  to  be  selected, 
and  later  on,  perhaps,  when  successes  or  failures  need  to  be 
noted  and  changes  made  in  the  methods  accordingly.  Another 
type  of  study  needs  continual  thinking  of  the  most  active 
sort  all  the  way  through  the  period.  Just  the  proportion  of 
the  various  factors  involved  in  thinking  which  is  present  at 
any  given  study  period  must  be  determined  by  the  response. 
A  type  of  study  which  would  be  completely  satisfactory  for  one 
subject  needing  one  response,  would  be  entirely  inadequate  for 
another  subject  needing  another  response.  To  illustrate,  in 
some  cases  the  study  must  deal  with  habit  formation.  The  need 
felt  is  to  learn  a  mechanical  response  of  a  very  definite  nature 
to  this  situation;  the  problem  is  to  get  that  response.  The 
thinking  would  come  in  in  deciding  upon  the  method,  in  watch- 
ing for  successes,  in  criticizing  progress,  and  in  judging  when  the 
end  was  obtained.  A  large  part  of  the  time  spent  in  study 
would,  however,  need  to  be  spent  in  repetition,  in  drill.  Of 
such  character  is  study  of  spelling,  of  vocabularies,  of  dates; 
study  in  order  to  gain,  skill  in  adding,  or  speed  in  reading,  or  to 
improve  in  writing  or  sewing.  Much  of  habit  formation  goes  on 
without  study  —  in  fact,  to  some  it  may  seem  to  be  ludicrous  to 
use  the  word  ''  study  "  in  connection  with  the  formation  of  habits. 
It  is  just  because  the  study  elements  in  connection  with  re- 
sponses of  this  type  have  been  omitted  that  there  has  been 
such  a  tremendous  waste  of  time  in  teaching  children  to  form 
right  habits.  This  omission  also  explains  the  poor  results,  for 
the  process  has  been  mechanical  and  blind  on  the  part  of  the 
student.  At  the  other  extreme  in  types  of  study  is  that  which 
can  be  used  in  science  and  mathematics,  in  geography  and  his- 
tory, when  the  major  part  of  the  time  is  given  to  selecting  and 
rejecting  suggestions  and  seems  required  by  the  goal.  In  this 
type  the  habituation,  the  fixing  of  the  material,  comes  largely 
as  a  by-product  of  the  factors  used  in  the  thinking. 


22  2  HOW  TO  TEACH 

Study  may,  then,  be  classified  according  as  the  response 
required  is  physical  habit,  memory,  appreciation,  or  judgment. 
These  types  overlap,  no  one  of  them  can  exist  absolutely  alone, 
but  it  is  possible  to  name  them  according  to  the  response. 
Study  may  also  be  classified  into  supervised  study,  or  unsuper- 
vised study,  into  individual  or  group  study.  We  might  also 
classify  study  as  it  has  to  do  with  books,  with  people,  or  with 
materials.  The  term  has  been  rather  arbitrarily  applied  to 
activities  that  dealt  with  books,  but  surely  much  study  is  accom- 
plished when  people  are  consulted  instead  of  books,  and  also 
when  the  sources  of  information  or  the  standards  are  flowers, 
or  rocks,  or  textiles. 

Study,  then,  is  a  big  term,  including  many  different  varieties 
of  activities,  of  varying  degrees  of  difhculty  and  responsibiHty. 
It  cannot  possibly  be  taught  all  at  once,  according  to  one  method, 
at  one  spot  in  the  school  curriculum.  Power  to  study  is  of  very 
gradual  growth.  It  must  proceed  slowly,  from  simple  to  com- 
plex types.  From  easy  to  difficult  problems,  from  situations 
where  there  is  close  supervision  and  direction  to  situations  where 
the  student  assumes  full  responsibility.  Knowing  how  to  study 
is  not  an  inborn  gift  —  it  does  not  come  as  a  matter  of  intuition, 
nor  does  it  come  in  some  mysterious  way  when  the  child  is  of 
high  school  age.  It  is  governed  by  the  laws  of  learning,  or 
readiness,  exercise,  and  effect,  just  as  truly  as  any  other  ability 
is.  If  adults  are  to  know  how  to  study,  if  they  are  to  use  the 
technique  of  the  various  kinds  of  study  efficiently,  children  must 
be  taught  how.  Nor  can  we  expect  the  upper  grammar  grade 
or  the  high  school  teachers  to  do  this.  Habits  of  study  must 
be  formed  just  as  soon  as  the  responses  to  which  it  leads  are 
needed.  Beginning  down  in  the  kindergarten  with  study  in 
connection  with  physical  and  mental  habits,  the  child  should 
be  taught  how  to  study.  The  type  must  gradually  become  more 
complex;    he  must  pass  from  group  to  individual  study,  from 


HOW  TO   STUDY  223 

supervised  to  unsupervised,  but  it  must  all  come  logically,  from 
step  to  step.  True,  it  is  not  easy  to  teach  how  to  study.  A 
careful  analysis  of  the  various  types  with  their  peculiar  elements 
should  be  a  help.  First,  however,  there  are  some  general  prin- 
ciples that  underlie  all  study  which  must  be  discussed. 

Study  must  have,  as  has  already  been  stated,  a  purpose. 
The  individual,  in  order  to  exercise  his  mind  in  a  controlled 
way,  must  have  an  aim.  The  clearer  and  more  definite  the  aim, 
whether  it  be  little  or  big,  the  better  the  study  will  be.  From 
the  beginning,  then,  children  must  be  taught  to  make  sure  they 
know  what  they  are  going  to  do  before  beginning  to  study.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  teach  them  in  the  early  grades  to  say  to 
themselves  or  to  the  class  just  what  they  are  going  to  accom- 
phsh  in  the  study.  Teach  them  when  the  lesson  is  assigned  to 
write  down  in  their  books  just  what  the  problem  for  study  is. 
Warn  them  never  to  begin  study  without  definitely  knowing  the 
aim  —  if  they  don't  know  it,  make  them  realize  that  the  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  find  out  the  purpose  by  asking  some  one  else. 
Better  no  study  at  all  than  aimless  or  misdirected  activity, 
because  of  lack  of  purpose. 

No  study  worthy  of  the  name  can  be  carried  on  without 
interest.  The  child  who  studies  well  must  be  brought  to  realize 
this.  The  value  of  interest  can  be  brought  home  to  him  by 
having  him  compare  the  work  he  does,  the  time  he  spends,  and 
how  he  feels  when  studying  something  in  which  he  has  a  vital 
interest  with  the  results  when  the  topic  is  uninteresting.  Of 
course,  as  will  be  pointed  out  later,  much  of  the  gaining  of 
interest  lies  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  necessarily,  but  if  the 
child  realizes  the  need  of  it  in  efficient  study,  some  responsi- 
bility will  rest  on  him  to  find  an  interest  if  it  is  not  already 
there.  No  matter  how  expert  the  teacher  may  be,  because  of 
individual  differences  no  problem  will  be  equally  interesting  to 
all  pupils  in  itself,  and  no  incentive  will  have  an  equal  appeal 


224  HOW  TO  TEACH 

to  all  children.  Therefore  children  should  be  taught  to  find 
interest  for  themselves.  Certain  devices  can  be  suggested, 
such  as  working  with  another  child  and  competing  with  him, 
"making  believe"  in  study,  and  finding  some  connection  with 
something  in  which  he  is  interested,  working  against  his  own 
score,  and  the  like. 

Not  only  do  the  demands  of  economy  require  that  the  topic 
of  study  receive  concentrated  attention,  but  the  results  them- 
selves are  better  when  such  is  the  case.  Half  an  hour  of  con- 
centrated work  gives  much  better  results  than  an  hour  of  study 
with  scattered  attention.  An  hour  spent  when  half  an  hour 
would  do  is  thus  not  only  wasteful  of  time,  but  is  productive  of 
poorer  results  and  bad  habits  of  study  as  well.  Children  need 
to  be  taught  this  from  the  beginning.  Much  time  is  wasted 
even  by  mature  university  students  when  they  suppose  them- 
selves to  be  studying.  Children  can  be  taught  to  ignore  distrac- 
tions —  to  train  themselves  to  keep  their  eyes  on  the  book,  de- 
spite the  fact  that  the  door  is  opened,  or  a  seat  mate  is  looking 
for  a  book.  They  should  be  encouraged  to  set  themselves  time 
liinits  in  various  subjects  and  adhere  to  them.  It  is  economicaT 
to  follow  a  regular  schedule  in  study  —  either  in  the  school  or 
at  home.  Let  each  child  make  out  his  study  schedule  and  keep 
to  it.  Teach  children  that  the  best  work  is  done  when  they  are 
calm  and  steady.  That  either  excitement  or  worry  is  a  hin- 
drance. Therefore  they  should  avoid  doing  their  studying  under 
those  conditions,  and  should  do  all  they  can  to  remove  such 
conditions.  Training  children  to  do  their  best  and  then  not  to 
worry  would  not  only  improve  the  health  of  many  upper  grammar 
grade  and  high  school  children,  but  would  also  improve  their 
work. 

Study  requires  a  certain  'critical  attitude,  a  checking  up  of 
results  against  the  problem  set.  In  order  to  be  efficient  in  study 
a  child  should  know  when  he  has  reached  the  solution,  when 


HOW  TO  STUDY  225 

the  means  have  been  adapted  to  the  end,  when  he  has  reached 
the  goal.  This  checking  up,  of  course,  means  habits  of  self- 
criticism  and  standards.  Sometimes  all  that  is  necessary  is  for 
the  child  to  be  made  conscious  of  this  fact  so  that  he  can  test 
himself,  for  instance,  in  memory  work,  or  in  solving  a  problem 
in  mathematics.  On  the  other  hand,  sometimes  he  will  have  to 
compare  his  work  with  definite  standards,  such  as  the  Thorn- 
dike  Handwriting  Scale,  or  the  Hillegas  Composition  Scale.^ 
In  other  instances,  he  will  have  to  search  for  standards.  He  will 
need  to  know  what  his  classmates  have  accomplished,  what 
other  people  think,  what  other  text-books  say,  and  so  on.  Gradu- 
ally he  must  be  made  conscious  that  study  is  a  controlled  activity, 
and  unless  it  reaches  the  goal,  and  the  correct  one,  it  is  useless. 
He  must  be  made  to  feel  that  the  responsibihty  to  see  that  such 
results  are  reached  rests  on  him. 

These,  then,  are  the  general  factors  involved  in  all  types  of 
study,  and  therefore  are  fundamental  to  good  habits  of  study: 
a  clear  purpose ;  vital  interest  of  some  kind ;  concentrated 
attention,  and  a  critical  attitude.  There  are  further  additional 
suggestions  which  are  peculiar  to  the  special  type  of  study. 

In  study  which  is  directed  to  habit  formation,  the  student 
should  be  taught  the  danger  of  allowing  exceptions.  He  should 
know  the  possibility  of  undoing  much  good  work  through  a 
little  carelessness.  Preaching  won't  bring  this  home  to  him  — 
it  must  come  through  having  his  attention  attracted  to  such  an 
occurrence  in  his  own  work  or  in  that  of  his  mates.  After  that 
knowledge  of  the  actual  experiences  of  others,  athletes,  musi- 
cians, and  others  will  help  to  intensify  the  impression.  The 
value  of  repetition  as  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  habit  formation 
must  be  emphasized.  The  child  should  be  encouraged  to  make 
opportunities  for  practice  both  in  free  minutes  during  the  school 
program,  and  outside  of  school.  He  must  be  taught  in  habit 
^  For  a  discussion  of  these  scales  see  Chapter  XV. 
Q 


226  HOW  TO   TEACH 

formation  to  practice  the  new  habit  in  the  way  it  is  to  be  used : 
practicing  the  sounds  of  letters  in  words,  the  writing  movements 
in  writing  words,  swimming  movements  in  the  water,  and  so  on. 
Practicing  the  whole  movements,  not  trying  to  gain  perfection 
in  parts  of  it  and  then  putting  it  together.  It  is  important  also 
that  the  learner  be  taught  to  keep  his  attention  on  the  result  to 
be  obtained,  instead  of  the  movements.  He  should  attend  to 
the  swing  of  the  club,  the  lightness  of  the  song,  the  cut  the  saw 
is  making,  the  words  he  is  writing,  instead  of  the  muscle  move- 
ments involved.  In  breaking  up  bad  habits  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  concentrate  on  a  part  or  a  movement,  when  that 
is  the  crux  of  the  error,  but  in  general  it  is  a  bad  practice  when 
forming  a  new  habit.  The  child  must  also  learn  to  watch  the 
habit  of  skill  he  is  forming  for  signs  of  improvement  and  then 
to  try  to  find  out  the  reason  for  it.  It  has  been  proved  experi- 
mentally that  much  of  the  improvement  in  habits  of  skill  comes 
unconsciously  to  the  learner,  and  necessarily  so,  but  that  in 
order  for  the  improvement  to  continue  and  be'  effective,  it  must 
become  conscious.  Of  course,  at  the  beginning  and  for  a  long 
time  it  must  be  the  teacher's  duty  to  point  out  the  improvement 
and  to  help  the  child  to  think  out  the  reasons  for  it,  but  if  he  is 
to  learn  to  study  by  himself  the  child  must  finally  come  to 
habits  of  self-criticism  which  will  enable  him  to  recognize  success 
or  failure  in  his  own  work.  In  all  this  discussion  of  teaching 
children  to  study  it  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  it  is 
a  gradual  process  —  and  only  very  slowly  does  the  child  become 
conscious  of  the  technique.  Which  elements  can  be  made  con- 
scious, how  much  he  can  be  left  to  himself,  must  depend  on  his 
maturity  and  previous  training.  In  time,  however,  he  should 
be  able  to  apply  them  all  —  for  only  by  so  doing  will  he  become 
capable  of  independent  study. 

When  the  study  is  primarily   concerned  with  memory  re- 
sponses, all  the  elements  which  have  just  been  discussed  in  con- 


HOW  TO   STUDY  227 

nection  with  habit  apply,  for,  after  all,  memory  is  but  mental 
habit.  There  are  other  factors  which  enter  into  and  which 
should  be  used  in  this  type  of  study.  First,  the  child  should 
realize  the  need  for  understanding  the  material  that  is  to  be 
learned,  before  beginning  to  memorize  it.  He  will  then  be 
taught  to  read  the  entire  assignment  through  —  look  up  diffi- 
cult words  and  references,  master  the  content,  whether  prose  or 
poetry,  whether  the  learning  is  to  be  verbatim  or  not,  before 
doing  anything  further.  Second,  he  will  need  to  know  the  value 
of  the  modified  whole  method  of  learning,  as  well  as  its  difficul- 
ties. If  in  the  supervised  periods  of  study  and  in  class  work, 
this  method  has  been  followed,  it  is  very  easy  to  make  him 
conscious  of  it  and  willing  to  adopt  it  when  he  comes  to  do  in- 
dependent study.  Third,  he  must  be  taught  to  distribute  his 
time  so  that  he  does  not  devote  too  long  a  stretch  to  one  subject. 
The  value  of  going  over  work  in  the  morning,  after  having  studied 
the  night  or  two  nights  before,  should  be  emphasized.  Also 
the  value  of  beginning  on  assignments  some  time  ahead,  even  if 
there  is  not  time  to  finish  them.  Fourth,  the  child  should  be 
taught  not  to  stop  his  work  the  minute  he  can  give  it  perfectly. 
The  need  for  overlearning,  for  permanent  retention,  must  be 
made  clear.  How  much  overlearning  is  necessary,  each  child 
should  find  out  for  himself.  Fifth,  the  value  of  9Utlining  ma- 
terial as  a  means  of  aiding  memory  must  be  stressed.  Sixth, 
the  child  should  be  taught  to  search  for  associations,  connec- 
tions of  all  types,  in  order  to  help  himself  remember  facts.  He 
might  even  be  encouraged  to  make  up  some  mnemonic  device 
as  an  aid  if  these  measures  fail.  If  instead  of  simply  trying  to 
hammer  material  in  by  mere  repetition  children  had  been  taught 
in  their  study  to  consciously  make  use  of  the  other  elements  in 
a  good  memory,  much  time  would  be  saved.  But  the  respon- 
sibility should  rest  finally  on  the  child  to  make  use  of  these 
helps.    The  teacher  must  make  him  conscious  of  them,  some- 


228  HOW  TO  TEACH 

times  from  their  value  by  experiment,  and  then  teach  him  to  use 
them  himself. 

Much  less  can  be  done  as  a  matter  of  conscious  technique 
when  the  occasion  of  study  is  to  further  appreciation.  A  few 
suggestions  might  be  offered.  First,  the  child  should  be  taught 
the  value  of  associating  with  those  who  do  appreciate  in  the 
line  in  which  he  is  striving  for  improvement.  He  should  be  en- 
couraged to  consciously  associate  with  them  when  opportunities 
for  appreciation  come.  Second,  he  should  know  the  need  for 
coming  in  contact  with  the  objects  of  appreciation  if  true  feel- 
ing is  to  be  developed.  It  is  only  by  mingling  with  people, 
reading  books,  listening  to  music,  that  appreciation  in  those 
fields  can  be  developed.  Third,  the  value  of  concrete  imagery 
and  of  connections  with  personal  experience  in  arousing  emo- 
tional tone  should  be  emphasized.  The  child  might  be  en- 
couraged to  consciously  call  up  "images  and  make  connections 
with  his  own  experience  during  study. 

Study,  when  the  object  is  to  arrive  at  responses  of  judgment, 
is  the  type  which  has  received  most  attention.  This  type  of 
study  includes  within  itself  several  possibilities.  Although  judg- 
ment is  the  only  response  that  can  solve  the  problem,  still  the 
problem  may  be  one  of  giving  the  best  expression  in  art  or  music 
or  drama.  It  may  be  the  analysis  of  a  course  of  action  or  of  a 
chemical  compound.  It  may  be  the  comparison  of  various 
opinions..  It  may  be  the  arriving  at  a  new  law  or  principle.  It 
is  to  one  of  these  types  of  thinking  that  the  term  ''study"  is 
usually  applied.  Important  as  it  is,  the  other  three  types 
already  discussed  cannot  be  neglected.  If  children  are  taught 
to  study  in  connection  with  the  simpler  situations  provided  by 
the  first  two  types,  they  will  be  the  better  prepared  to  deal  with 
this  complex  type,  for  this  highest  type  of  study  involves  habit 
formation  often  and  memory  work  always. 

In  the  type  of  study  involving  reasoning,  because  of  its  com- 


HOW  TO  STUDY  229 

plexity,  and  because  the  individual  must  work  more  inde- 
pendently, the  child  must  learn  the  danger  of  following  the  first 
suggestion  which  offers  itself.  He  must  learn  to  weigh  each 
suggestion  offered  with  reference  to  the  goal  aimed  at.  Each 
step  in  the  process  must  be  tested  and  weighed  in  this  manner. 
To  go  blindly  ahead,  following  out  a  line  of  suggestions  until  the 
end  is  reached,  which  is  then  found  to  be  the  wrong  one,  wastes 
much  time  and  is  extremely  discouraging.  No  suggestion  of  the 
way  to  adapt  means  to  end  should  be  accepted  without  careful 
criticism.  The  pupil  should  gradually  be  made  conscious  of 
the  technique  of  reasoning,  analysis,  comparison,  and  abstrac- 
tion. He  must  know  that  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  analyze  the 
problem  and  see  just  what  it  requires.  He  must  know  that  the 
abstraction  depends  upon  the  goal.  The  learner  should  be 
taught  the  sources  of  some  of  the  commonest  mistakes  in  judg- 
ment. For  instance,  if  he  knows  of  the  tendency  to  respond  in 
terms  of  analogy,  and  sees  some  of  the  errors  to  which  accepting 
a  minor  likeness  between  two  situations  as  identity  lead,  he  will 
be  much  more  apt  to  avoid  such  mistakes  than  would  otherwise 
be  true.  If  he  knows  how  unsafe  it  is  to  form  a  judgment  on 
limited  data,  —  if  from  his  own  and  his  classmates'  thinking 
first,  and  later  from  the  history  of  science,  illustrations  are  drawn 
of  the  disastrous  effect  of  such  thinking,  he  will  see  the  value  of 
seeking  sources  of  information  and  several  points  of  view  be- 
fore forming  his  own  judgment.  In  his  study  the  child  should ; 
be  taught  not  to  be  satisfied  until  he  has  tested  the  correctness 
of  his  judgment  by  verifying  the  result.  This  is  a  very  neces-^ 
sary  part  of  studying.  He  should  check  up  his  own  thinking 
by  finding  out  through  appeal  to  facts  if  it  is  so ;  by  putting  the 
judgment  into  execution;  by  consulting  the  opinion  of  others, 
and  so  on. 

Study  may  be  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  type 
of  material  which  is  used  in  the  process.     The  student  may  be 


230  HOW  TO  TEACH 

engaged  on  a  problem  which  involves  the  use  of  apparatus  or 
specimens  of  various  kinds,  or  he  may  need  to  consult  people,  or 
he  may  have  to  use  books.  So  far  as  the  first  type  is  concerned, 
it  is  obviously  unwise  to  have  a  student  at  work  on  a  problem 
which  involves  the  use  of  material,  unless  the  technique  of 
method  of  use  is  well  known.  Until  he  can  handle  the  ma- 
terial with  some  degree  of  facility  it  is  waste  of  time  for  him  to 
be  struggling  with  problems  which  necessitate  such  use.  Such 
practice  results  in  divided  attention,  poor  results  from  the  study, 
and  often  bad  habits  in  technique  as  well.  Gaining  the  tech- 
nique must  be  in  itself  a  problem  for  separate  study. 

Children  should  be  taught  to  ask  questions  which  bear  directly 
on  the  point  they  wish  to  know.  If  they  in  working  out  some 
problem  are  dependent  on  getting  some  information  from  the 
janitor,  or  the  postman,  or  a  mason,  they  must  be  able  to  ask 
questions  which  will  bring  them  what  they  want  to  know. 
Much  practice  in  framing  questions,  having  them  criticized, 
having  them  answered  just  as  they  are  asked,  is  necessary. 
Children  should  be  aware  of  the  question  as  a  tool  in  their  study 
and  therefore  they  must  know  how  to  handle  it.  In  connection 
with  this  second  type  of  material,  the  problem  of  the  best  source 
of  information  will  arise.  Children  must  then  be  made  con- 
scious of  the  relative  values  of  various  persons  as  sources  of  a 
particular  piece  of  information.  Training  in  choice  of  the  source 
of  information  is  very  important  both  when  that  source  is  people 
and  also  when  it  is  books. 

Teaching  children  to  use  books  in  their  study  is  one  of  the 
big  tasks  of  the  teacher.  They  must  learn  that  books  are 
written  in  answer  to  questions.  In  order  to  thoroughly  under- 
stand a  book,  students  must  seek  to  frame  the  questions  which 
it  answers.  They  must  also  know  how  to  use  books  to  answer 
their  own  questions.  This  means  they  must  know  how  to  turn 
from  part  to  part,  gleaning  here  or  there  what  they  need.     It 


HOW  TO  STUDY  231 

means  training  in  the  ability  to  skim,  omitting  unessentials  and 
picking  out  essentials.  It  means  the  ability  to  recognize  major 
points,  minor  points,  and  illustrative  material.  Children  must 
be  taught  to  use  the  table  of  contents,  the  index,  and  paragraph 
headings.  They  must,  in  their  search  for  fuller  information  or 
criticism,  be  able  to  interpret  different  authors,  use  different 
language,  and  attack  from  different  angles,  even  when  treating 
the.  same  object.  Children  must  in  their  studying  be  taught  to 
use  books  as  a  means  to  an  end  —  not  an  infallible  means,  but 
one  which  needs  continual  criticism,  modification,  and  amplifi- 
cation. 

Study  may  be  supervised  study,  or  unsupervised  study.  To 
some  people  the  requirements  in  learning  to  study  may  seem 
too  difficult  to  be  possible,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  process  is  gradual  —  that  one  by  one  these  elements  in 
study  are  taught  to  the  children  in  their  supervised  study  periods. 
These  periods  should  begin  in  the  primary  grades,  and  require 
from  the  teacher  quite  as  much  preparation  as  any  other  period. 
Many  teachers  have  taught  subjects,  but  not  how  to  study 
subjects.  The  latter  is  the  more  important.  The  matter  of 
distributed  learning  periods,  of  search  for  motive,  of  asking 
questions,  of  criticizing  achievement,  of  use  of  books ;  each  ele- 
ment is  a  topic  for  class  discussion  before  it  is  accepted  as  an 
element  in  study.  Even  after  it  is  accepted,  it  may  be  raised 
by  some  child  as  a  source  of  particular  difficulty  and  fresh  sug- 
gestions added.  Very  often  with  little  children  it  is  necessary 
for  the  teacher  to  study  the  lesson  with  them.  Teachers  need 
much  more  practice  in  doing  this,  for  one  of  the  best  ways  to  ^ 
t^ach  a  child  to  study  is  to  study  with  him.  Not  to  tell  him,'''^ 
and  do  the  work  for  him,  but  to  really  study  with  him.  Later 
on  the  supervised  study  period  is  one  in  which  each  child  is 
silently  engaged  upon  his  own  work  and  the  teacher  passes  from 
one  to  the  other.     In  order  to  do  this  well,  the  teacher  needs  to 


232  HOW  TO  TEACH 

be  able  to  do  two  things.  First,  to  find  out  when  the  child  is 
in  difficulty  and  to  locate  it,  and  second,  to  help  him  over  the 
trouble  without  giving  too  much  assistance.  Adequate  ques- 
tioning is  needed  in  both  cases.  It  is  probably  true  that  com- 
paratively little  new  work  should  be  given  for  unsupervised 
study.  There  is  too  much  danger  of  error  as  well  as  lack  of 
interest  unless  a  start  is  given  under  supervision. 

Studying,  especially  unsupervised,  may  be  done  in  groups  or 
individually.  The  former  is  a  stepping-stone  to  the  latter. 
There  is  a  greater  chance  for  suggestions,  for  getting  the  prob- 
lem worded,  for  arousing  interest  and  checking  results,  when  a 
group  of  children  are  working  together  than  when  a  child  is  by 
himself.  Two  things  must  be  looked  after.  First,  that  the 
children  in  the  group  be  taught  not  to  waste  time,  and  second, 
that  the  personnel  of  the  group  be  right.  It  is  not  very  helpful 
if  one  child  does  all  the  work,  nor  if  one  is  so  far  below  the  level 
of  the  group  that  he  is  always  tagging  along  behind.  More 
opportunities  for  group  study  in  the  grammar  grades  would  be 
advantageous. 

When  it  comes  to  individual  study,  the  student  then  assumes 
all  responsibility  for  his  methods  of  study.  He  should  be  taught 
the  influence  of  physical  conditions  or  mental  reactions.  He 
will  therefore  be  responsible  for  choosing  in  the  home  and  in  the 
school  the  best  possible  conditions  for  his  study.  He  will  see 
to  it  that,  in  so  far  as  possible,  the  air  and  light  are  good,  that 
there  are  no  unnecessary  distractions,  and  that  he  is  as  comfort- 
able bodily  as  can  be.  He  must  think  not  only  in  terms  of  the 
goal  to  be  reached,  but  also  with  respect  to  the  methods  to  be 
employed.  He  should  be  asked  by  the  teacher  to  report  his 
methods  of  work  as  well  as  his  results. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  233 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Are  children  always  primarily  engaged  in  thinking  when  they  study? 

2.  What  type  of  study  is  involved  in  learning  a  multiplication  table, 
a  list  of  words  in  spelling,  a  conjugation  in  French  ? 

3.  How  would  you  teach  a  pupil  to  study  his  speUing  lesson? 

4.  In  what  sense  may  one  study  in  learning  to  write?  In  acquiring 
skill  in  swimming  ? 

5.  How  would  you  teach  your  pupils  to  memorize? 

6.  Show  how  ability  to  study  may  be  developed  over  a  perod  of  years 
in  some  subject  with  which  you  are  familiar.  Reading?  Geography? 
History?    Latin  translation? 

7.  Is  the  .boy  who  reads  over  and  over  again  his  lesson  necessarily 
studying  ? 

8.  Can  one  study  a  subject  even  though  he  may  dislike  it?  Can  one 
study  without  interest  ? 

9.  How  can  you  teach  children  what  is  meant  by  concentration  of 
attention  ? 

10.  How  have  you  found  it  possible  to  develop  a  critical  attitude  toward 
their  work  upon  the  part  of  children  ? 

11.  Of  what  factors  in  habit  formation  must  children  become  conscious, 
if  they  are  to  study  to  best  advantage  in  this  field  ? 

12.  How  may  we  hope  to  have  children  learn  to  study  in  the  fields 
requiring  judgment?  Why  will  not  consciousness  of  the  technique  of 
study  make  pupils  equally  able  in  studying? 

13.  What  exercises  can  you  conduct  which  will  help  children  to  learn 
how  to  use  books  ? 

14.  How  can  a  teacher  study  with  a  pupil  and  yet  help  him  to  develop 
independence  in  this  field  ? 

15.  How  may  small  groups  of  children  work  together  advantageously 
in  studying? 


XV 
MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN 

The  success  or  failure  of  the  teacher  in  applying  the  principles 
which  have  been  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapters  is  meas- 
ured by  the  achievements  of  the  children.  Of  course,  it  is  also 
possible  that  the  validity  of  the  principle  which  we  have  sought 
to  establish  may  be  called  in  question  by  the  same  sort  of  meas- 
urement. We  cannot  be  sure  that  our  methods  of  work  are 
sound,  or  that  we  are  making  the  best  use  of  the  time  during 
which  we  work  with  children,  except  as  we  discover  the  results  of 
our  instruction.  Teaching  is  after  all  the  adaptation  of  our 
methods  to  the  normal  development  of  boys  and  girls,  and  their 
education  can  be  measured  only  in  terms  of  the  changes  which 
we  are  able  to  bring  about  in  knowledge,  skill,  appreciation, 
reasoning,  and  the  like. 

Any  attempt  to  measure  the  achievements  of  children  should 
result  in  a  discovery  of  the  progress  which  is  being  made  from 
week  to  week,  or  month  to  month,  or  year  to  year.  It  would 
often  be  found  quite  advantageous  to  note  the  deficiencies  as  well 
as  the  achievements  at  one  period  as  compared  with  the  work 
done  two  or  three  months  later.  It  will  always  be  profitable  to 
get  as  clearly  in  mind  as  is  possible  the  variation  among  mem- 
bers of  the  same  class,  and  for  those  who  are  interested  in  the 
supervision  of  schools,  the  variation  from  class  to  class,  from 
school  to  school,  or  from  school  system  to  school  system.  For 
the  teacher  a  study  of  the  variability  in  achievement  among  the 
members  of  his  own  class  ought  to  result  in  special  attention  to 
those  who  need  special  help,  especially  a  kind  of  teaching  which 
will  remove  particular  difficulties.     There  should  also  be  offered 

234 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN     235 

unusual  opportunity  and  more  than  the  ordinary  demand  be 
made  of  those  who  show  themselves  to  be  more  capable  than  the 
ordinary  pupils. 

The  type  of  measurement  which  we  wish  to  discuss  is  some- 
thing more  than  the  ordinary  examination.  The  difficulties  with 
examinations,  as  we  have  commonly  organized  them,  has  been 
their  unreliability,  either  from  the  standpoint  of  discovering  to 
us  the  deficiencies  of  children,  or  their  achievements.  Of  ten 
problems  in  arithmetic  or  of  twenty  words  in  spelling  given  in 
the  ordinary  examination,  there  are  very  great  differences  in 
difficulty.  We  do  not  have  an  adequate  measure  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  children  when  we  assign  to  each  of  the  problems  or  words 
a  value  of  ten  or  of  five  per  cent  and  proceed  to  determine  the 
mark  to  be  given  on  the  examination  paper.  If  we  are  wise  in 
setting  our  examinations,  we  usually  give  one  problem  or  one 
word  which  we  expect  practically  everybody  to  be  able  to  get 
right.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  really  measure  the  achieve- 
ments of  children,  we  must  give  some  problems  or  some  words 
that  are  too  hard  for  any  one  to  get  right.  Otherwise,  we  do  not 
know  the  limit  or  extent  of  ability  possessed  by  the  abler  pupils. 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  many  examinations  one  question  may 
actually  be  four  or  five  times  as  hard  as  some  other  to  which  an 
equal  value  is  assigned. 

Another  difficulty  that  we  have  to  meet  in  the  ordinary  exam- 
ination is  the  variability  among  teachers  in  marking  papers. 
We  do  not  commonly  assign  the  same  values  to  the  same  result. 
Indeed,  if  a  set  of  papers  is  given  to  a  group  of  capable  teachers 
and  marked  as  conscientiously  as  may  be  by  each  of  them,  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  find  a  variation  among  the  marks  assigned  to 
the  same  paper  which  may  be  as  great*  as  twenty-five  per  cent  of 
the  highest  mark  given.  Even  more  interesting  is  the  fact  that 
upon  re-marking  these  same  papers  individual  teachers  will  vary 
from  their  own  first  mark  by  almost  as  great  an  amount. 


236  HOW  TO  TEACH 

Still  another  difficulty  with  the  ordinary  examination  is  the 
tendency  among  teachers  to  derive  their  standards  of  achieve- 
ment from  the  group  itself,  rather  than  from  any  objective 
standard  by  which  all  are  measured.  It  is  possible,  for  example, 
for  children  in  English  composition  to  write  very  poorly  for  their 
grade  and  still  to  find  the  teacher  giving  relatively  high  marks  to 
those  who  happen  to  belong  to  the  upper  group  in  the  class.  As 
a  result  of  the  establishment  of  such  a  standard,  the  teacher  may 
not  be  conscious  of  the  fact  that  children  should  be  spurred  to 
greater  effort,  and  that  possibly  he  himself  should  seek  to  improve 
his  methods  of  work. 

Out  of  the  situation  described  above,  which  includes  on  the 
one  hand  the  necessity  for  measurement  as  a  means  of  testing  the 
success  of  our  theories  and  of  our  practice,  and  on  the  other  hand 
of  having  objective  standards,  has  grown  the  movement  for 
measurement  by  means  of  standard  tests  and  scales.  A  standard 
test  which  has  been  given  to  some  thousands  of  children  classified 
by  grades  or  by  ages,  if  given  to  another  group  of  children  of  the 
same  grade  or  age  group,  will  enable  the  teacher  to  compare  the 
achievement  of  his  children  with  that  which  is  found  elsewhere. 
For  example,  the  Courtis  tests  in  arithmetic,  which  consist  of 
series  of  problems  of  equal  difficulty  in  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  and  division  may  be  used  to  discover  how  far 
facility  in  these  fields  has  been  accomplished  by  children  of  any 
particular  group  as  compared  with  the  achievements  of  children 
in  other  school  systems  throughout  the  country.  In  these  tests 
each  of  the  problems  is  of  equal  difficulty.  The  measure  is  made 
by  discovering  how  many  of  these  separate  problems  can  be 
solved  in  a  given  number  of  minutes.^ 

A  scale  for  measuring  the  achievements  of  children  in  the 

^  The  Courtis  Tests,  Series  B,  for  Measuring  the  Achievements  of  Children  in 
the  Fundamentals  of  Arithmetic,  can  be  secured  from  Mr.  S.  A.  Curtis,  82  Eliot 
Street,  Detroit,  Mich. 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN    237 

fundamental  operations  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication, 
and  division  has  been  derived  by  Dr.  Clifford  Woody, ^  which 
differs  from  the  Courtis  tests  in  that  it  affords  opportunity  to 
discover  what  children  can  achieve  from  the  simplest  problem  in 
each  of  these  fields  to  a  problem  which  is  in  each  case  approxi- 
mately twice  as  difficult  as  the  problems  appearing  on  the  Courtis 
tests.  The  great  value  of  this  type  of  test  is  in  discovering  to 
teachers  and  to  pupils,  as  well,  their  particular  difficulties.  A 
pupil  must  be  able  to  do  fairly  acceptable  work  in  addition  before 
he  can  solve  one  problem  on  the  Courtis  tests.  Considerable 
facility  can  be  measured  on  the  Woody  tests  before  an  ability 
sufficient  to  be  registered  on  the  Courtis  tests  has  been  acquired. 
In  his  monograph  on  the  derivation  of  these  tests  Mr.  Woody 
gives  results  which  will  enable  the  teacher  to  compare  his  class 
with  children  already  tested  in  other  school  systems.  In  the 
case  of  all  of  these  standard  tests,  school  surveys  and  super- 
intendents' reports  are  available  which  will  make  it  possible  to 
institute  comparisons  among  different  classes  and  different 
school  systems.     One  form  of  the  Woody  tests  is  as  follows  : 

^  Measurements  of  Some  Achievements  in  Arithmetic,  by  Clifford  Woody, 
published  by  the  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University, 
1916. 


238  HOW  TO  TEACH 

SERIES  A 
ADDITION  SCALE 

By  Clifford  Woody 

Name 

When  is  your  next  birthday  ? How  old  will  you  be  ? 

Are  you  a  boy  or  girl  ? In  what  grade  are  you  ? 

(1)  (3)  (6)  (7)  (9)         (10)       (11)       (12)  (13)  (16)         (16) 
2        17       72            3  +  1=           20       21       32       43           23                   100  9 

^   *_2     26  10     33     59       I        25  ss     24 

(2)  (4)         (6)  (8)  2       ^       £2  2  16  45       12 
2       53       60       2  +  5  +  1=        30                              il                                 201        15 

4     45     32  2£  ^14)  _46     12 

J  25+42  = 

(17)  (19)  (21)  (22)  (23)  (26)  (29) 

199   $  .75    $8.00  547     i+i=       i2i     4t 

194     1.25      5.75   197  62i        2i 

295   _4a.    2.33  685       ;;         I2i      5t 

>i^     •  4.16  678    I   ^^  aii 

(18)  (20)       ^.94   456        J^^7  ^30) 

2563  $12.50  A31    393     8.673  i+i+^=  fil 

1387  16.75  525     -^^  ^^^^^  3 

4954  15-75  240       ^„)        (28)  ^^I, 

2065  liE  1+5  +  7^^^    3  +  1^ 

(31)  (33)      (34j  (36)  (36)  (87) 

113.46  .49  ■8-+|=   2  ft.  6  in.   2  yr.  5  mo.  i6i 

49.6097  .28  3  ft.  5  in.   3  yr.  6  mo.  i2i 

19.9  .63  4  ft.  9  in.   4  yr.  9  mo.  21^ 

9.87  .95  5  yr.  2  mo.  ^ 

.0086  1.69  6  yr.  7  mo. 

18.253  .22 

6.04  .33  (38) 

•  •  26        25.091+100.4+25+98.28+19.3614= 

(32)  I-OI 

f  +  i+i=  .56       • 

.88 

•75 
.56 
1. 10 
.18 
■56 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN     239 

SERIES  A 
SUBTRACTION  SCALE 

By  Clifford  Woody 

Name 

When  is  your  next  birthday  ? How  old  will  you  be  ? 

Are  you  a  boy  or  girl  ? In  what  grade  are  you  ? 


(1)  1 

(2) 

(3)    (4) 

(5)     (6) 

(7) 

(8) 

(9) 

(10) 

(11) 

8 

6 

2     9 

4    II 

13 

59 

78 

7- 

4  = 

76 

£  . 

0 

1     1 

4   _^ 

_8 

12 

ai 

60 

(12) 

(13) 

(14) 

(16) 

(16) 

(17) 

(18) 

( 

:i9) 

(20) 

27 

16 

50 

21 

270 

393 

1000 

567482 

2|- 

-1  = 

^ 

_2 

£5 

_S 

190 

128 

_m. 

106493 

(«1) 

(22) 

(28) 

(24) 

(25] 

1 

1 

:(26) 

10.00 

3i-i  = 

= 

80836465   8i 

27 

4  yd. 

I  ft. 

6  in. 

349 

49178036  5l 

I2i 

2  yd. 

2  ft. 

3  in. 

(27) 

(28) 

(29) 

( 

80) 

5  yd. 

I  ft. 

,  4  in. 

10 --[6.2 

5  = 

75f 

9.8063 

-  9.019  = 

2  yd. 

2  ft. 

,  8  in. 

53i 

(31) 

(82) 

(33) 

(34) 

(36) 

7-3- 

3.00081- 

191 

2  6  mo. 

8  da. 

1^"1^  = 

6i 

3J- 

-if= 

1910  7  mo. 

15  da. 

2i 

240  HOW  TO  TFACH 

SERIES  A 

DIVISION   SCALE 

By  Clifford  Woody 

Name 

When  is  your  next  birthday? How  old  will  you  be?, 

Are  you  a  boy  or  girl  ? In  what  grade  are  you  ? .  . , 


(1)  (2)                    (3)                           (4)                                      (5)                (6) 

3)6  gjrj        4)28              1)5                    9)^      3)^ 

(7)  (8)                    (9)                                      (10)                         (11)                   (12) 

4-i-2=  9)0                1)1                         6X =  30          2)13          24-2  = 

(13)  (14)                                  (16)                           (16)                        (17) 

4)24  lbs.  8  oz.       8)5856           i  of  128=       68)2108       50-^7  = 

(18)  (19)           (20)            (21)         (22) 

13)65065  248-^7=    2.1)25.2       25)9750    2)13.50 

(23)  (24)                    (26)                 (26) 

23)469  75)2250300          2400)504000          12)2.76 

■  (27)  (28)                  (29)                   (30) 

J  of  624  =  .003) .0936       3i-^9=         |-^S  = 

(31)  (32)                     (33) 

i^i=  9f-^3f=          52)3756 

(34)  (38)                         (36) 

62.5o-Mi=  531)37722          9)69  lbs.  9  oz. 


MEASURING   THE  ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN     241 

SERIES  A 
MULTIPLICATION   SCALE 

By  Clifford  Woody 

Name 

When  is  your  next  birthday  ? How  old  will  you  be  ? 

Are  you  a  boy  or  girl  ? In  what  grade  are  you  ? 

(1)         (2)         (3)         (4)        (6)      (6)       (7) 
3X7=     5X1=     2X3=     4X8=     23     310    7X9  = 

(8)     (9)      (10)      (11)      (12)       (13)     (14)     (16) 
50    254    623    1036    5096    8754    165    235 

_^       __6_       _2_       8        6        8        _4o        _23_ 

(16)  (17)  (18)  (19)  (20)  (21)  (22) 

7898  145  24  9.6  287         '      24  8X5!  = 

2^         206         234         _4         j£S         ,2i_ 

(23)  (24)  (25)  (26)  (27)  (28)  (29) 

iiX8=        i6         iXf=        9742       6.25       .0123       iX2  = 
2f  59         3>2  Q-8 

(30)  (31)  (82)  (33)  (34) 

2.49       H\/lA_       6  dollars  49  cents     2^X3^-=     iX-J  = 
36       25     32  8 

(36)  (36)  (37)  (88)  (89) 

987!       3  ft.  5  in.       2iX4iXii=        .0963!       8  ft.  9^  in. 
25  5  -0^4  9 

R 


242  HOW  TO  TEACH 

A  series  of  problems  in  reasoning  in  arithmetic  which  were 
given  in  twenty-six  school  systems  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Stone  furnish  a 
valuable  test  in  this  field,  as  well  as  an  opportunity  for  com- 
parison with  other  schools  in  which  these  problems  have  been 
used.^    A  list  of  problems  follows. 

Solve  as  many  of  the  following  problems  as  you  have  time 
for.;  work  them  in  order  as  numbered  : 

1.  If  you  buy  2  tablets  at  7  cents  each  and  a  book  for  65  cents,  how 
much  change  should  you  receive  from  a  two-dollar  bill  ? 

2.  John  sold  4  Saturday  Evening  Posts  at  5  cents  each.  He  kept 
i  the  money  and  with  the  other  |  he  bought  Sunday  papers  at  2  cents 
each.     How  many  did  he  buy  ? 

3.  If  James  had  4  times  as  much  money  as  George,  he  would  have  $16. 
How  much  money  has  George  ? 

4.  How  many  pencils  can  you  buy  for  50  cents  at  the  rate  of  2  for  5  cents  ? 

5.  The  uniforms  for  a  baseball  nine  cost  $2.50  each.  The  shoes  cost 
$2  a  pair.     What  was  the  total  cost  of  uniforms  and  shoes  for  the  nine  ? 

6.  In  the  schools  of  a  certain  city  there  are  2200  pupils;  |  are  in  the 
primary  grades,  |  in  the  grammar  grades,  |  in  the  High  School,  and  the 
rest  in  the  night  school.     How  many  pupils  are  there  in  the  night  school? 

7.  If  3^  tons  of  coal  cost  $21,  what  will  5I  tons  cost? 

8.  A  news  dealer  bought  some  magazines  for  $1.  He  sold  them  for 
$1.20,  gaining  5  cents  on  each  magazine.     How  many  magazines  were  there  ? 

9.  A  girl  spent  i  of  her  money  for  car  fare,  and  three  times  as  much 
for  clothes.  Half  of  what  she  had  left  was  80  cents.  How  much  money 
did  she  have  at  first  ? 

10.  Two  girls  receive  $2.10  for  making  buttonholes.  One  makes  42, 
the  other  28.     How  shall  they  divide  the  money? 

11.  Mr.  Brown  paid  one  third  of  the  cost  of  a  building;  Mr.  Johnson 
paid  ^  the  cost.  Mr.  Johnson  received  $500  more  annual  rent  than  Mr. 
Brown.    How  much  did  each  receive  ? 

12.  A  freight  train  left  Albany  for  New  York  at  6  o'clock.  An  express 
left  on  the  same  track  at  8  o'clock.  It  went  at  the  rate  of  40  miles  an 
hour.  At  what  time  of  day  will  it  overtake  the  freight  train  if  the  freight 
train  stops  after  it  has  gone  56  miles  ? 

1  Reasoning  Test  in  Arithmetic,  by  C.  W.  Stone,  published  by  the  Bureau  of 
Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  19 16, 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN    243 

A  different  type  of  measurement  is  accomplished  by  using 
Thorndike's  scale  for  measuring  the  quality  of  handwriting.^ 
A  typical  distribution  of  the  scores  which  children  receive  on  the 
handwriting  scale  reads  as  follows  :  For  a  fourth  grade  one  child 
writes  quality  four,  two  quality  six,  five  quality  seven,  seven 
quality  eight,  eight  quality  nine,  three  quality  ten,  two  quality 
eleven,  two  quality  twelve,  one  quality  thirteen,  one  quality 
fourteen.  In  a  table  the  distributions  of  scores  in  penmanship 
for  a  large  number  of  papers  selected  at  random  show  the  follow- 
ing results : 


Scores 

Grades 

2 

3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10  .  .  .  .  . 

II 

12 

13 

14 

IS  .  .  .  ■  . 

16 

17 

18 

5 
22 
21 
29 
28 
42 

7 
29 

5 

7 

I 

2 

2 

21 

44 
86 

41 
8 

13 
2 
2 

3 

16 
24 
42 

55 
20 
21 

15 
2 

3 

I 

3 

3 

12 

56 
61 
16 
17 
15 
6 

4 
I 

2 

I 
20 
25 

9 

32 
44 
17 
10 

9 

10 

6 

3 

I 

3 
15 
29 
II 

25 
12 

19 

16 

6 

12 
2 

I 

I 

3 

7 

15 

I 

23 
21 

9 
9 

15 

17 

3 

Total  papers  . 

196 

221 

202 

194 

188 

152 

124 

^  A  Scale  for  Handwriting  of  Children,  by  E.  L,  Thorndike,  published  by  the 
Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


245 


246 


<y 


247 


'4i 

■J 


t\^ 


4 


^ 


r 


.1 


A 


& 


^ 


<30 


f 


j^ 


iti 


248 


c3 


249 


.'^ 


nN 


& 


^ 


^ 


\ 


250 


251 


c3 

<y 


252 


253 


^' 


254 


-i 


B 


-6 


/-o 


256 


^ 


TO 


Q 


257 


"^^^^^ 


n 

& 


i 


feD 


25S 


K 


"^ 


^ 


^4 


1 


259 


3 


03 


260 


,^ 


•^ 


^ 

1 


^ 


261 


^ 


262 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN    263 

This  table  reads  as  follows :  Quality  four  was  written  by  five 
children  in  the  second  grade  and  two  in  the  third  grade,  quality 
five  was  written  by  twenty-two  children  in  the  second  grade,  two 
children  in  the  third  grade,  three  in  the  fourth  grade,  three  in  the 
fifth  grade,  none  in  the  sixth  grade,  one  in  the  seventh  grade,  and 
none  in  the  eighth  grade,  and  so  on  for  the  whole  table.^ 

A  scale  for  measuring  abiHty  in  spelling  prepared  by  Dr. 
Leonard  P.  Ayres  arranges  the  thousand  words  most  commonly 
used  in  the  order  of  their  difficulty.  From  this  sheet  it  is  possible 
to  discover  words  of  approximately  the  same  difficulty  for  each 
grade.  A  test  could  therefore  be  derived  from  this  scale  for  each 
of  the  grades  with  the  expectation  that  they  would  all  do  about 
equally  well.  There  would  also  be  the  possibility  of  determining 
how  well  the  spelling  was  done  in  the  particular  school  system  in 
which  these  words  were  given  as  compared  with  the  ability  of 
children  as  measured  by  an  aggregate  of  more  than  a  million 
spellings  by  seventy  thousand  children  in  eighty-four  cities 
throughout  the  United  States.  Such  a  list  could  be  taken  from 
the  scale  for  the  second  grade,  which  includes  words  which  have 
proved  to  be  of  a  difficulty  represented  by  a  seventy-three  per 
cent  correct  spelling  for  the  class.  Such  a  list  might  be  composed 
of  the  following  words  :  north,  white,  spent,  block,  river,  winter, 
Sunday,  letter,  thank,  and  best.  A  similar  list  could  be  taken 
from  the  scale  for  a  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  or  eighth 
grade.  For  example,  the  words  which  have  approximately  the 
same  difficulty,  —  seventy-three  per  cent  to  be  spelled  correctly 
by  the  class  for  the  sixth  grade,  —  read  as  follows :  often, 
stopped,  motion,  theater,  improvement,  century,  total,  mansion, 
arrive,  supply.  The  great  value  of  such  a  measuring  scale, 
including  as  it  does  the  thousand  words  most  commonly  used,  is 

^  A  scale  derived  by  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  is 
also  valuable  for  measuring  penmanship,  and  can  be  purchased  from  the  Russell 
Sage  Foundation. 


264  HOW  TO  TEACH 

to  be  found  not  only  in  the  opportunity  for  comparing  the  achieve- 
ments of  children  in  one  class  or  school  with  another,  but  also 
in  the  focusing  of  the  attention  of  teachers  and  pupils  upon  the 
words  most  commonly  used.^ 

One  of  the  fields  in  which  there  is  greatest  need  for  measure- 
ment is  English  composition.  Teachers  have  too  often  thought 
of  English  composition  as  consisting  of  spelling,  punctuation, 
capitalization,  and  the  like,  and  have  ignored  the  quality  of  the 
composition  itself  in  their  attention  to  these  formal  elements.  A 
scale  for  measuring  English  composition,  derived  by  Dr.  M.  B. 
Hillegas,^  consisting  of  sample  compositions  of  values  ranging 
from  o  to  9.37,  will  enable  the  teacher  to  tell  just  how  many  pupils 
in  the  class  are  writing  each  different  quahty  of  composition. 
The  use  of  such  a  scale  will  tend  to  make  both  teacher  and  pupil 
critical  of  the  work  which  is  being  done  not  only  with  respect  to 
the  formal  elements,  but  also  with  respect  to  the  style  or  ade- 
quacy of  the  expression  of  the  ideas  which  the  writer  seeks  to 
convey.  Probably  in  no  other  field  has  the  teacher  been  so  apt 
to  derive  his  standard  from  the  performance  of  the  class  as  in 
work  in  composition.  Even  though  some  teachers  find  it  diffi- 
cult to  evaluate  the  work  of  their  pupils  in  terms  of  the  sample 
compositions  given  on  the  scale,  much  good  must  come,  it  seems 
to  the  writer,  from  the  attempt  to  grade  compositions  by  such 
an  objective  scale.  If  such  measurements  are  made  two  or 
three  times  during  the  year,  the  performance  of  individual  pupils 
and  of  the  class  will  be  indicated  much  more  certainly  than  is  the 
case  when  teachers  feel  that  they  are  getting  along  well  without 
any  definite  assurance  of  the  amount  of  their  improvement. 

In  one  large  school  system  in  which  the  writer  was  permitted 

1  Copies  of  the  Spelling  Scale  can  be  secured  from  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 
New  York,  for  five  cents  a  copy. 

2  A  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality  in  English  Composition,  by  Milo  B. 
Hillegas,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University. 


MEASURING   THE  ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN     265 

to  have  the  principals  measure  compositions  collected  from  the 
sixth  and  the  eighth  grades,  it  was  discovered  that  almost  no 
progress  in  the  quality  of  composition  had  been  accomplished 
during  these  two  years.  This  lack  of  achievement  upon  the  part 
of  children  was  not,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  due  to  any  lack- 
of  conscientious  work  upon  the  part  of  teachers,  but,  rather, 
developed  out  of  a  situation  in  which  the  whole  of  composition 
was  thought  of  in  terms  of  the  formal  elements  mentioned  above. 
The  Hillegas  scale,  together  with  the  values  assigned  to  each  of 
the  samples,  is  given  below. 

A    SCALE    FOR   THE    MEASUREMENT   OF    THE    QUALITY    OF 
ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 

By  Milo  B.  Hillegas 

Value  0.     Artificial  sample 

Letter 

Dear  Sir:  I  write  to  say  that  it  aint  a  square  deal  Schools  is  I  say 
they  is  I  went  to  a  school,  red  and  gree  green  and  brown  aint  it  hito  bit 
I  say  he  don't  know  his  business  not  today  nor  yeaterday  and  you  know 
it  and  I  want  Jennie  to  get  me  out. 

Value  183.     Artificial  sample 
My  Favorite  Book 

the  book  I  refer  to  read  is  Ichabod  Crane,  it  is  an  grate  book  and  I  like 
to  rede  it.  Ichabod  Crame  was  a  man  and  a  man  wrote  a  book  and  it  is 
called  Ichabod  Crane  i  like  it  because  the  man  called  it  ichabod  crane  when 
I  read  it  for  it  is  such  a  great  book. 

Value  260.     Artificial  sample 

The  Advantage  of  Tyranny 

Advantage  evils  are  things  of  tyranny  and  there  are  many  advantage 
evils.  One  thing  is  that  when  they  opress  the  people  they  suffer  awful  I 
think  it  is  a  terrible  thing  when  they  say  that  you  can  be  hanged  down 
or  trodden  down  without  mercy  and  the  tyranny  does  what  they  want 
there  was  tyrans  in  the  revolutionary  war  and  so  they  throwed  off  the  yok. 


266  HOW  TO  TEACH 

Value  369.    Written  by  a  boy  in  the  second  year  of  the  high  school,  aged 

14  years 

Sulla  as  a  Tyrant 
When  Sxilla  came  back  from  his  conquest  Marius  had  put  himself  consul 
so  sulla  with  the  army  he  had  with  him  in  his  conquest  siezed  the  govern- 
ment from  Marius  and  put  himself  in  consul  and  had  a  list  of  his  enemys 
printy  and  the  men  whoes  names  were  on  this  list  we  beheaded. 

Value  474.    Written  by  a  girl  in  the  third  year  of  the  high  school,  aged 

17  years 

De  Quincy 

First :  De  Quincys  mother  was  a  beautiful  women  and  through  her  De 
Quincy  inhereted  much  of  his  genius. 

His  running  away  from  school  enfluenced  him  much  as  he  roamed  through 
the  woods,  valleys  and  his  mind  became  very  meditative. 

The  greatest  enfluence  of  De  Quincy's  life  was  the  opimn  habit.  If 
it  was  not  for  this  habit  it  is  doubtful  whether  we  would  now  be  reading 
his  writings. 

His  companions  dining  his  college  course  and  even  before  that  time 
were  great  enfluences.  The  siuroimdings  of  De  Quincy  were  enfluences. 
Not  only  De  Quincy's  habit  of  opimn  but  other  habits  which  were  pecidiar 
to  his  life. 

His  marriage  to  the  woman  which  he  did  not  especially  care  for. 

The  many  well  educated  and  noteworthy  friends  of  De  Quincy. 

Value  585.    Written  by  a  boy  in  the  foiuth  year  of  the  high  school,  aged 

16  years 

FlueUen 
The  passages  given  show  the  following  characteristic  of  Fluellen:    his 
indinarion  to  brag,  his  professed  knowledge  of  History,  his  complaining 
character,  his  great  patriotism,  pride  of  his  leader,  admired  honesty,  re- 
vengeful, love  of  fim  and  punishment  of  those  who  deserve  it. 

Value  675.    Written  by  a  girl  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  aged 

18  years 

Ichabod  Crane 
Ichabod  Crane  was  a  schoolmaster  in  a  place  called  Sleepy  Hollow.    He 
was  tall  and  slim  with  broad  shoulders,  long  arms  that  dangled  far  below 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN    267 

his  coat  sleeves.  His  feet  looked  as  if  they  might  easily  have  been  used 
for  shovels.  His  nose  was  long  and  his  entire  frame  was  most  loosely  himg 
to-gether. 

Value  772.    Written  by  a  boy  in  the  third  year  of  the  high  school,  aged 

16  years 

Going  Down  with  Victory 

As  we  road  down  Lombard  Street,  we  saw  flags  waving  from  nearly  every 
window.  I  surely  felt  proud  that  day  to  be  the  driver  of  the  gaily  decorated 
coach.  Again  and  again  we  were  cheered  as  we  drove  slowly  to  the  post- 
masters, to  await  the  coming  of  his  majestie's  mail.  There  wasn't  one  of 
the  gaily  bedecked  coaches  that  could  have  compared  with  ours,  in  my 
estimation.  So  with  waving  flags  and  fluttering  hearts  we  waited  for  the 
coming  of  the  mail  and  the  expected  tidings  of  victory. 

When  at  last  it  did  arrive  the  postmaster  began  to  quickly  sort  the  bundles, 
we  waited  anxiously.  Immediately  upon  receiving  our  bundles,  I  lashed 
the  horses  and  they  responded  with  a  jump.  Out  into  the  country  we 
drove  at  reckless  speed  —  everywhere  spreading  like  wildfire  the  news, 
"  Victory !  "  The  exileration  that  we  all  felt  was  shared  with  the  horses. 
Up  and  down  grade  and  over  bridges,  we  drove  at  breakneck  speed  and 
spreading  the  news  at  every  hamlet  with  that  one  cry  "  Victory !  "  When 
at  last  we  were  back  home  again,  it  was  with  the  hope  that  we  should  have 
another  ride  some  day  with  "  Victory." 

Value  838.    Written  by  a  boy  in  the  Freshman  class  in  college 

Venus  of  Melos 

In  looking  at  this  statue  we  think,  not  of  wisdom,  or  power,  or  force,  but 
just  of  beauty.  She  stands  resting  the  weight  of  her  body  on  one  foot, 
and  advancing  the  other  (left)  with  knee  bent.  The  posture  causes  the 
figure  to  sway  shghtly  to  one  side,  describing  a  fine  curved  Une.  The  lower 
limbs  are  draped  but  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  uncovered.  (Theim- 
fortunate  loss  of  the  statue's  arms  prevents  a  positive  knowledge  of  its 
original  attitude.)  The  eyes  are  partly  closed,  having  something  of  a 
dreamy  langour.  The  nose  is  perfectly  cut,  the  mouth  and  chin  are  moulded 
in  adorable  curves.  Yet  to  say  that  every  feature  is  of  faultless  perfection 
is  but  cold  praise.  No  analysis  can  convey  the  sense  of  her  peerless 
beauty. 


268  HOW  TO  TEACH 

Value  937.     Written  by  a  boy  in  the  Freshman  class  in  college 
A  Foreigner's  Tribute  to  Joan  of  Arc 

Joan  of  Arc,  worn  out  by  the  suffering  that  was  thrust  upon  her,  never- 
theless appeared  with  a  brave  mien  before  the  Bishop  of  Beauvais.  She 
knew,  had  always  known  that  she  must  die  when  her  mission  was  fulfilled 
and  death  held  no  terrors  for  her.  To  all  the  bishop's  questions  she  an- 
swered firmly  and  without  hesitation.  The  bishop  failed  to  confuse  her 
and  at  last  condemned  her  to  death  for  heresy,  bidding  her  recant  if  she 
would  live.     She  refused  and  was  lead  to  prison,  from  there  to  death. 

While  the  flames  were  writhing  around  her  she  bade  the  old  bishop  who 
stood  by  her  to  move  away  or  he  would  be  injured.  Her  last  thought  was 
of  others  and  De  Quincy  says,  that  recant  was  no  more  in  her  mind  than 
on  her  lips.  She  died  as  she  lived,  with  a  prayer  on  her  lips  and  listening 
to  the  voices  that  had  whispered  to  her  so  often. 

The  heroism  of  Joan  of  Arc  was  wonderful.  We  do  not  know  what 
form  her  great  patriotism  took  or  how  far  it  really  led  her.  She  spoke  of 
hearing  voices  and  of  seeing  visions.  We  only  know  that  she  resolved  to 
save  her  country,  knowing  though  she  did  so,  it  would  cost  her  her  life. 
Yet  she  never  hesitated.  She  was  uneducated  save  for  the  lessons  taught 
her  by  nature.  Yet  she  led  armies  and  crowned  the  dauphin,  king  of 
France.  She  was  only  a  girl,  yet  she  could  silence  a  great  bishop  by  words 
that  came  from  her  heart  and  from  her  faith.  She  was  only  a  woman, 
yet  she  could  die  as  bravely  as  any  martyr  who  had  gone  before. 

The  following  compositions  have  been  evaluated  by  Professor 
Thorndike,  and  may  be  used  to  supplement  the  scale  given  above. 

Value  13 

Last  Monday  the  house  on  the  corner  of  Jay  street  was  burned  down  to 
the  ground  and  right  down  by  Mrs.  brons  house  there  is  a  little  child  all 
alone  and  there  is  a  bad  man  sleeping  in  the  seller,  but  we  have  a  wise  old 
monkey  in  the  coal  ben  so  the  parents  are  thankful  that  they  dont  have  to 
pay  any  reward. 

Value  20 

Some  of  the  house  burned  and  the  children  were  in  bed  and  there  were 
four  children  and  the  lady  next  store  broke  the  door  in  and  went  up  stars 
and  woke  the  peple  up  and  whent  out  of  the  house  when  they  moved  and 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN     269 

and  the  girl  was  skard  to  look  out  of  the  window  and  all  the  time  thouhth 
that  she  saw  a  flame. 

And  the  wise  monkey  reward  from  going  to  the  firehouse  and  jumping 
all  round  and  was  thankful  from  his  reward  and  was  thankful  for  what  he 
got.    $15.  was  his  reward. 

Value  30 

A  long  time  ago,  I  do  not  know,  how  long  but  a  man  and  a  woman  and 
a  little  boy  lived  together  also  a  monkey  a  pet  for  the  little  boy  it  happened 
that  the  man  and  the  woman  were  out,  and  the  monkey  and  little  boy,  and 
the  house  started  to  burn,  and  the  monkey  took  the  little  boys  hand,  and, 
went  out. 

The  father  had  come  home  and  was  glad  that  the  monkey  had  saved  his 
little  boy. 

And  that,  monkey  got  a  reward. 

Value  40 

Once  upon  a  time  a  woman  went  into  a  dark  room  and  lit  a  match.  She 
dropped  it  on  the  floor  and  it  of  course  set  the  house  afire. 

She  jumped  out  of  the  window  and  called  her  husband  to  come  out  too. 

They  both  forgot  all  about  the  baby.  All  of  a  sudden  he  appeared  in  the 
window  calling  his  mother. 

His  father  had  gone  next  door  to  tel  afone  to  the  fire  house. 

They  had  a  monkey  in  the  house  at  the  time  and  he  heard  the  child  call- 
ing his  mother. 

He  had  a  plan  to  save  the  baby. 

He  ran  to  the  window  where  he  was  standing.  He  put  his  tail  about  his 
waist  and  jumped  off  the  window  sill  with  the  baby  in  his  tail. 

When  the  people  were  settled  again  they  gave  him  a  silver  collar  as  a 
reward. 

Value  50 

A  University  out  west,  I  cannot  remember  the  name,  is  noted  for  its 
hazing,  and  this  is  what  the  story  is  about.  It  is  the  hazing  of  a  freshman. 
There  was  a  freshman  there  who  had  been  acting  as  if  he  didn't  respect 
his  upper  class  men  so  they  decided  to  teach  him  a  lesson.  The  student 
brought  before  the  Black  Avenger's  which  is  a  society  in  all  college  to  keep 
the  freshman  under  there  rules  so  they  desided  to  take  him  to  the  rail-rode 
track  and  tie  him  to  the  rails  about  two  hours  before  a  train  was  suspected 
and  leave  him  there  for  about  an  hour,  which  was  a  hour  before  the  9.20 


270  HOW  TO  TEACH 

train  was  expected.  The  date  came  that  they  planned  this  hazing  for  so 
the  captured  the  fellow  blindfolded  him  and  lead  him  to  the  rail  rode  tracks, 
where  they  tied  him. 

Value  60 

I  should  Uke  to  see  a  picture,  illustrating  a  part  of  L'allegro.  Where 
the  godesses  of  Mirth  and  Liberty  trip  along  hand  in  hand.  Two  beau- 
tiful girls  dressed  in  flowing  garments,  dancing  along  a  flower-strewn  path, 
through  a  pretty  garden.  Their  hair  flowing  down  in  long  curls.  Their 
countenances  showing  their  perfect  freedom  and  happiness.  Their  arms 
extended  gracefully  smelling  some  sweet  flower.  In  my  mind  this  would 
make  a  beautiful  picture. 

Value  70 

It  was  between  the  dark  and  the  daylight  when  far  away  could  be  seen 
the  treacherous  wolves  skulking  over  the  hills.  We  sat  beside  our  camp- 
fires  and  watched  them  for  awhile.  Sometimes  a  few  of  them  would  howl 
as  if  they  wanted  to  get  in  our  camp.  Then,  half  discouraged,  they  would 
walk  away  and  soon,  there  would  be  others  doing  the  same  thing.  They 
were  afraid  to  come  near  because  of  the  fires,  which  were  burning  brightly. 
I  noticed  that  they  howled  more  between  the  dark  and  the  daylight  than 
at  any  time  of  the  night. 

Value  80 

The  sun  was  setting,  giving  a  rosy  glow  to  all  the  trees  standing  tall  black 
against  the  faintly  tinted  sky.  Blue,  pink,  green,  yellow,  like  a  conglomera- 
tion of  paints  dropped  carelessly  onto  a  pale  blue  background.  The  trees 
were  in  such  great  number  that  they  looked  like  a  mass  of  black  crepe,  each 
with  its  individual,  graceful  form  in  view.  The  lake  lay  smooth  and  un- 
ruffled, dimly  reflecting  the  beautiful  coloring  of  the  sky.  The  wind  started 
madly  up  and  blew  over  the  lake's  glassy  surface  making  mysterious  mur- 
murings  blending  in  with  the  chirping  songs  of  the  birds  blew  through  the 
tree  tops  setting  the  leaves  rustling  and  whispering  to  one  another.  A 
squirrel  ran  from  his  perch  chattering,  to  the  lofty  branches  —  a  far  and  dis- 
tant hoot  echoed  in  the  silence,  and  soon  night,  over  all  came  stealing,  blot- 
ting out  the  scenery  and  wrapping  all  in  restful,  mysterious  darkness. 

Value  90 

Oh  that  I  had  never  heard  of  Niagara  till  I  beheld  it !  Blessed  were  the 
wanderers  of  old,  who  heard  its  deep  roar,  sounding  through  the  woods,  as 
the.  summons  to  an  unknown  wonder,  and  approached  its  awful  brink,  in 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF   CHILDREN    271 

all  the  freshness  of  native  feeling.  Had  its  own  mysterious  voice  been  the 
first  to  warn  me  of  its  existence,  then,  indeed,  I  might  have  knelt  down 
and  worshipped.  But  I  had  come  thither,  haunted  with  a  vision  of  foam 
and  fury,  and  dizzy  cliffs,  and  an  ocean  tumbling  down  out  of  the  sky  —  a 
scene,  in  short,  which  nature  had  too  much  good  taste  and  calm  simplicity 
to  realize.  My  mind  had  struggled  to  adapt  these  false  conceptions  to  the 
reahty,  and  finding  the  effort  vain,  a  wretched  sense  of  disappointment 
weighed  me  down.  I  climbed  the  precipice,  and  threw  myself  on  the  earth 
feeling  that  I  was  unworthy  to  look  at  the  Great  Falls,  and  careless  about 
beholding  them  again. 

A  scale  for  measuring  English  composition  in  the  eighth  grade, 
which  takes  account  of  different  types  of  composition,  such  as 
narration,  description,  and  the  like,  has  been  developed  by  Dr. 
Frank  W.  Ballou,  of  Boston.^  For  those  interested  in  the  follow- 
ing up  of  the  problem  of  English  composition  this  scale  will  prove 
interesting  and  valuable. 

Several  scales  have  been  developed  for  the  measurement  of 
the  ability  of  children  in  reading.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned the  scale  derived  by  Professor  Thorndike  for  measuring 
the  understanding  of  sentences.^  This  scale  calls  attention  to 
that  element  in  reading  which  is  possibly  the  most  important  of 
them  all,  that  is,  the  attempt  to  get  meanings.  We  are  all  of  us, 
for  the  most  part,  concerned  not  primarily  with  giving  expression 
through  oral  reading,  but,  rather,  in  getting  ideas  from  the  printed 
page.     A  sample  of  this  scale  is  given  on  the  following  page. 

^  The  Harvard-Newton  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  English  Composition, 
published  by  the  Harvard  University  Press,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

2  Scale  Alpha.  For  Measuring  the  Understanding  of  Sentences,  by  E.  L. 
Thorndike,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University. 

Scales  for  measuring  the  rate  of  silent  reading  and  oral  reading  have  been  derived 
by  Dr.  W.  S.  Gray,  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  and  by  Dr.  F.  J.  Kelly,  of  the 
University  of  Kansas.  Reference  to  the  use  of  Dr.  Gray's  scale  will  be  found  in 
Judd's  Measuring  Work  of  the  Schools,  one  of  the  volumes  of  the  Cleveland 
survey,  published  by  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  Dr.  Kelly's  test,  called  The 
Kansas  Silent  Reading  Test,  can  be  had  from  the  Emporia,  Kansas,  State  Normal 
School. 


272  HOW  TO  TEACH 

SCALE  ALPHA.     FOR  MEASURING  THE  UNDERSTANDING  OF 

SENTENCES 

Write  your  name  here 

Write  your  age years months. 

Set  a 

Read  this  and  then  write  the  answers.  Read  it  again  as  often  as  you 
need  to. 

John  had  two  brothers  who  were  both  tall.  Their  names  were  WiU  and 
Fred.  John's  sister,  who  was  short,  was  named  Mary.  John  liked  Fred 
better  than  either  of  the  others.  AU  of  these  children  except  Will  had  red 
hair.     He  had  brown  hair. 

1.  Was  John's  sister  tall  or  short ? 

2.  How  many  brothers  had  John ? 

3.  What  was  his  sister's  name ? 

Set  b 

Read  this  and  then  write  the  answers.  Read  it  again  as  often  as  you 
need  to. 

Long  after  the  sun  had  set,  Tom  was  still  waiting  for  Jim  and  Dick  to 
come.  "If  they  do  not  come  before  nine  o'clock,"  he  said  to  himself,  "I 
will  go  on  to  Boston  alone."  At  half  past  eight  they  came  bringing  two 
other  boys  with  them.  Tom  was  very  glad  to  see  them  and  gave  each  of 
them  one  of  the  apples  he  had  kept.  They  ate*  these  and  he  ate  one  too. 
Then  all  went  on  down  the  road. 

1 .  When  did  Jim  and  Dick  come  ? 

2.  What  did  they  do  after  eating  the  apples ? 


3.  Who  else  came  besides  Jim  and  Dick? 

4.  How  long  did  Tom  say  he  would  wait  for  them? 

5.  What  happened  after  the  boys  ate  the  apples?..  . 


MEASURING   THE   ACHIEVEMENTS   OF   CHILDREN     273 

Set  c 

Read  this  and  then  write  the  answers.  Read  it  again  as  often  as  you 
need  to. 

It  may  seem  at  first  thought  that  every  boy  and  girl  who  goes  to  school 
ought  to  do  all  the  work  that  the  teacher  wishes  done.  But  sometimes 
other  duties  prevent  even  the  best  boy  or  girl  from  doing  so.  If  a  boy's 
or  girl's  father  died  and  he  had  to  work  afternoons  and  evenings  to  earn 
money  to  help  his  mother,  such  might  be  the  case.  A  good  girl  might  let 
her  lessons  go  undone  in  order  to  help  her  mother  by  taking  care  of  the 
baby. 

I.   What  are  some  conditions  that  might  make  even  the  best  boy  leave 
school  work  unfinished  ? 


2.  What  might  a  boy  do  in  the  evenings  to  help  his  family?. 

3.  How  could  a  girl  be  of  use  to  her  mother? 


4.   Look  at  these  words :    idle,  tribe,  inch,  it,  ice,  ivy,  tide,  true,  tip,  top,  tit, 
tat,  toe. 

Cross  out  every  one  of  them  that  has  an  i  and  has  not  any  t  (T)  in  it. 

Set  d 

Read  this  and  then  write  the  answers.  Read  it  again  as  often  as  you 
need  to. 

It  may  seem  at  first  thought  that  every  boy  and  girl  who  goes  to  school 
ought  to  do  all  the  work  that  the  teacher  wishes  done.  But  sometimes 
other  duties  prevent  even  the  best  boy  or  girl  from  doing  so.  If  a  boy's 
or  girl's  father  died  and  he  had  to  work  afternoons  and  evenings  to  earn 
money  to  help  his  mother,  such  might  be  the  case.  A  good  girl  might  let 
her  lessons  go  undone  in  order  to  help  her  mother  by  taking  care  of  the 
baby. 


274  HOW  TO  TEACH 

I.   What  is  it  that  might  seem  at  first  thought  to  be  true,  but  really  is  false  ? 


2.  What  might  be  the  effect  of  his  father's  death  upon  the  way  a  boy  spent 
his  time  ? 

3.  Who  is  mentioned  in  the  paragraph  as  the  person  who  desires  to  have 
all  lessons  completely  done  ? 


4.  In  these  two  lines  draw  a  line  under  every  5  that  cojnes  just  after  a  2, 
unless  the  2  comes  just  after  a  9.  If  that  is  the  case,  draw  a  line  imder 
the  next  figure  after  the  5  : 

5362541742576549253861254735239258479256 
12574856 

Many  tests  have  been  devised  which  have  been  thought  to 
have  more  general  application  than  those  which  have  been  men- 
tioned above  for  the  particular  subjects.  One  of  the  most  valu- 
able of  these  tests,  called  technically  a  completion  test,  is  that 
derived  by  Dr.  M.  R.  Trabue.^  In  these  tests  the  pupil  is  asked 
to  supply  words  which  are  omitted  from  the  printed  sentences. 
It  is  really  a  test  of  his  ability  to  complete  the  thought  when 
only  part  of  it  is  given.  Dr.  Trabue  calls  his  scales  language 
scales.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  ability  of  this  sort  is 
closely  related  to  many  of  the  traits  which  we  consider  desirable 
in  school  children.  It  would  therefore  be  valuable,  provided 
always  that  children  have  some  ability  in  reading,  to  test  them 
on  the  language  scale  as  one  of  the  means  of  differentiating  among 
those  who  have  more  or  less  ability.  The  scores  which  may 
be  expected  from  different  grades  appear  in  Dr.  Trabue's  mono- 
graph.    Three  separate  scales  follow. 

^  Completion  Test  Language  Scales,  by  M.  R.  Trabue,  published  by  the  Bureau 
of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF   CHILDREN    275 

Write  only  one  word  on  each  blank 

Time  Limit:  Seven  minutes  Name   


TRABUE 

LANGUAGE   SCALE  B 

I.  We  like  good  boys girls. 

6.  The is  barking  at  the  cat. 

8.  The  stars  and  the will  shine  tonight. 

22.  Time often  more  valuable money. 

23.  The  poor  baby  . . ." as  if  it sick. 

31.  She if  she  will. 

35.   Brothers  and  sisters   always to 

help other  and  should quarrel. 

38 weather  usually    a  good  effect 

one's  spirits. 

48.   It  is  very  annoying  to tooth-ache, 

often  comes  at  the  most time 

imaginable. 
54.   To friends  is  always the 

it  takes. 

Write  only  one  word  on  each  blank 

Time  Limit:  Seven  minutes  Name    ;      


TRABUE 

LANGUAGE   SCALE  D 

4.  We  are  going school. 

76.  I to  school  each  day. 

II.  The plays her  dolls  all  day. 

21.  The  rude  child  does  not many  friends. 

63.  Hard makes tired. 

27.  It  is  good  to  hear voice 

friend. 


276  HOW  TO  TEACH 

71.   The  happiest  and contented  man  is  the  one 

lives  a  busy  and  useful 

42.   The  best  advice usually obtained 

one's  parents. 

.51 things  are satisfying  to  an  ordi- 
nary   than  congenial  friends. 

84 a  rule  one association 

friends. 

Write  only  one  word  on  each  blank 

Time  Limit:  Five  minutes  Name   


TRABUE 
LANGUAGE   SCALE  J 

29.   Boys  and soon  become and  women. 

61.   The are  often  more  contented the 

rich. 

64.   The  rose  is  a  favorite because  of 

fragrance  and  

41.   It  is  very to  become acquainted 

persons  who , timid. 

93.   Extremely  old sometimes al- 
most as care  as 

'     87.   One's in  life upon  so 

factors  it  is  not  to  state  any 

single for failure. 

89.   The  future of  the  stars  and  the  facts  of 

history  are now  once  for  all, I 

Uke  them not. 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF   CHILDREN    277 

Other  standard  tests  and  scales  of  measurement  have  been 
derived  and  are  being  developed.  The  examples  given  above 
will,  however,  suffice  to  make  clear  the  distinction  between  the 
ordinary  type  of  examination  and  the  more  careful  study  of  the 
achievements  of  children  which  may  be  accomplished  by  using 
these  measuring  sticks.  It  is  important  for  any  one  who  would 
attempt  to  apply  these  tests  to  know  something  of  the  technique 
of  recording  results. 

In  the  first  place,  the  measurement  of  a  group  is  not  expressed 
satisfactorily  by  giving  the  average  score  or  rate  of  achievement 
of  the  class.  It  is  true  that  this  is  one  measure,  but  it  is  not  one 
which  tells  enough,  and  it  is  not  the  one  which  is  most  significant 
for  the  teacher.  It  is  important  whenever  we  measure  children 
to  get  as  clear  a  view  as  we  can  of  the  whole  situation.  For  this 
purpose  we  want  not  primarily  to  know  what  the  average  per- 
formance is,  but,  rather,  how  many  children  there  are  at  each 
level  of  achievement.  In  arithmetic,  for  example,  we  want  to 
know  how  many  there  are  who  can  do  none  of  the  Courtis  prob- 
lems in  addition,  or  how  many  there  are  who  can  do  the  first  six 
on  the  Woody  test,  how  many  can  do  seven,  eight,  and  so  on. 
In  penmanship  we  want  to  know  how  many  children  there  are 
who  write  quality  eight,  or  nine,  or  ten,  or  sixteen,  or  seventeen, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  work  of  the  teacher  can  never  be  accom- 
plished economically  except  as  he  gives  more  attention  to  those 
who  are  less  proficient,  and  provides  more  and  harder  work  for 
those  who  are  capable,  or  else  relieves  the  able  members  of  the 
class  from  further  work  in  the  field.  It  will  be  well,  therefore,  to 
prepare,  for  the  sake  of  comparing  grades  within  the  same  school 
or  school  system,  or  for  the  sake  of  preparing  the  work  of  a  class 
at  two  different  times  during  the  year,  a  table  which  shows  just 
how  many  children  there  are  in  the  group  who  have  reached  each 
level  of  achievement.  Such  tables  for  work  in  composition  for  a 
class  at  two  different  times,  six  months  apart,  appear  as  follows 


278  HOW  TO  TEACH 

Distribution  of  Composition  Scores  for  a  Seventh  Grade 


number  of  children 

November 

February 

Rated  at    0 
1.83 
2.60 

3.69 
4-74 
5.85 
6.75 
7.72 
S.3S 
9.37 

0 

I 

6 

12 
8 

3 
I 
I 
0 
0 

0 
I 

4 

6 

II 

4 
3 
2 

I'i 
0 

A  study  of  such  a  distribution  would  show  not  only  that  the 
average  performance  of  the  class  has  been  raised,  but  also  that 
those  in  the  lower  levels  have,  in  considerable  measure,  been 
brought  up ;  that  is,  that  the  teacher  has  been  working  with  those 
who  showed  less  ability,  and  not  simply  pushing  ahead  a  few 
who  had  more  than  ordinary  capacity.  It  would  be  possible 
to  increase  the  average  performance  by  working  wholly  with 
the  upper  half  of  the  class  while  neglecting  those  who  showed  less 
ability.  From  a  complete  distribution,  as  has  been  given  above, 
it  has  become  evident  that  this  has  not  been  the  method  of  the 
teacher.  '  He  has  sought  apparently  to  do  everything  that  he 
could  to  improve  the  quaHty  of  work  upon  the  part  of  all  of  the 
children  in  the  class. 

It  is  very  interesting  to  note,  when  such  complete  distributions 
are  given,  how  the  achievement  of  children  in  various  classes 
overlaps.  For  example,  the  distribution  of  the  number  of  ex- 
amples on  the  Courtis  tests,  correctly  finished  in  a  given  time  by 
pupils  in  the  seventh  grades,  makes  it  clear  tkat  there  are  children 
in  the  fifth  grade  who  do  better  than  many  in  the  eighth. 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN    279 

The  Distribution  of  the  Number  of  Examples  Correctly  Finished 
IN  THE  Given  Time  by  Pupils  in  the  Several  Grades 


ADDITION 

subtraction 

No.   OF 

Examples 

Grades 

No.  OF 
Examples 
Finished 

Grades 

Fmism  J 

6 

6 

7 

8 

5 

6 

7 

8 

0 

I 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 

19 
20 
21 
22 

1        12 
26 
27 
31 
25 
16 

15 

I 

3 

I 

15 
23 
31 

27 
28 

23 
22 
II 

4 

2 

S 
14 

8 
27 

19 

16 

12 

8 

6 

3 

I 
I 

4 
9 
6 

9 
16 

15 
12 

9 

II 

8 

6 

2 

2 
I 

0 

I 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 

19 
20 
21 

22 

6 

5 
7 

13 
21 
26 
17 
15 
15 
10 
8 
6 

3 
2 
I 

2 

6 

8 
21 
18 
30 

27 

27 
20 

13 
6 

2 

I 
2 

I 

I 

2 
2 
I 
3 
13 
12 

15 

18 

12 

9 

13 

3 

7 

3 

3 

2 

I 

I 

I 
2 

7 

9 

9 

12 

12 

II 

12 

9 

5 

7 

3 

2 

I 

I 

4 
2 

I 

Total 
papers 

157 

186 

119 

III 

155 

185 

119 

III 

28o 


HOW  TO   TEACH 


The  Distribution  of  the  Number  of  Examples  Correctly  Finished 
IN  the  Given  Time'  by  Pupils  in  the  Several  Grades 


multiplication 

division 

No.   OF 

Examples 

Grades 

No.  OF 
Examples 
Finished 

Grades 

Finished 

5 

6 

7 

8 

5 

c 

7 

8 

O 
I 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

lO 

II 

12 

13 
14 
15 
i6 

17 
i8 

19 

20  . 

21  . 

22  . 

lO 
lO 

19 

21 
28 
26 
24 

9 

5 
3 

I 

4 

4 

20 

17 
31 
34 
27 
20 
14 
9 
4 

3 

5 

II 

16 

12 

13 

16 

21 

II 

6 

2 

2 

I 

I 

5 
3 

13 
13 
10 

19 
13 
10 

9 
6 

3 
3 

I 

I 

I 

0 
I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 

19 
20 
21 

22 

17 
19 
18 
21 

25 
21 

9 

10 

6 

4 
4 

I 

I 

7 

17 

22 

26 

27 

27 

15 

15 

7 

7 

9 

3 

2 

2 

I 

I 

2 

8 

6 

8 

II 

12 

16 

20 

II 

7 

3 

10 

I 

2 

I 

4 

2 
6 

7 

4 

18 

9 
6 

13 
7 

10 

10 

4 

9 

2 

4 
2 

I 
I 
I 

Total 
papers 

156 

184 

119 

III 

156 

187 

118 

III 

If  the  tests  had  been  given  in  the  fourth  or  the  third  grade,  it 
would  have  been  found  that  there  w^ere  children,  even  as  low  as 
the  third  grade,  who  could  do  as  well  or  better  than  some  of  the 
children  in  the  eighth  grade.  Such  comparisons  of  achievements 
among  children  in  various  subjects  ought  to  lead  at  times  to 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF   CHILDREN     281 

reorganizations  of  classes,  to  the  grouping  of  children  for  special 
instruction,  and  to  the  rapid  promotion  of  the  more  capable  pupils. 

In  many  of  these  measurements  it  will  be  found  helpful  to 
describe  the  group  by  naming  the  point  above  and  below  which 
half  of  the  cases  fall.  This  is  called  the  median.  Because  of  the 
very  common  use  of  this  measure  in  the  current  literature  of 
education,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  discuss  carefully  the  method 
of  its  derivation.^ 

2  The  median  point  of  any  distribution  of  measures  is  that  point 
on  the  scale  which  divides  the  distribution  into  two  exactly  equal 
parts,  one  half  of  the  measures  being  greater  than  this  point  on 
the  scale,  and  t^he  other  half  being  smaller.  When  the  scales  are 
very  crude,  or  when  small  numbers  of  measurements  are  being 
considered,  it  is  not  worth  while  to  locate  this  median  point  any 
more  accurately  than  by  indicating  on  what  step  of  the  scale  it 
falls.  If  the  measuring  instrument  has  been  carefully  derived 
and  accurately  scaled,  however,  it  is  often  desirable,  especially 
where  the  group  being  considered  is  reasonably  large,  to  locate 
the  exact  point  within  the  step  on  which  the  median  falls.  If  the 
unit  of  the  scale  is  some  measure  of  the  variability  of  a  defined 
group,  as  it  is  in  the  majority  of  our  present  educational  scales, 
this  median  point  may  well  be  calculated  to  the  nearest  tenth  of 
a  unit,  or,  if  there  are  two  hundred  or  more  individual  measure- 
ments in  the  distribution,  it  may  be  found  interesting  to  calculate 
the  median  point  to  the  nearest  hundredth  of  a  scale  unit.  Very 
seldom  will  anything  be  gained  by  carrying  the  calculation  be- 
yond the  second  decimal  place. 

The  best  rule  for  locating  the  median  point  of  a  distribution  is 
to  take  as  the  median  that  point  on  the  scale  which  is  reached  by 

^  The  student  who  is  not  interested  in  the  statistical  methods  involved  in  meas- 
uring with  precision  the  achievements  of  pupils  may  omit  the  remainder  of  this 
chapter. 

2  This  explanation  of  the  method  of  finding  the  median  was  prepared  for  one 
of  the  classes  in  Teachers  College  by  Dr.  M.  R.  Trabue. 


282  HOW  TO  TEACH 

counting  out  one  half  of  the  measures,  the  measures  being  taken 
in  the  order  of  their  magnitude.  If  we  let  n  stand  for  the  number 
of  measures  in  the  distribution,  we  may  express  the  rule  as  follows : 

Count  into  the  distribution,  from  either  end  of  the  scale,  a  distance 

n 
covered  by  -  measures.  For  example,  if  the  distribution  con- 
tains 20  measures,  the  median  is  that  point  on  the  scale  which 
marks  the  end  of  the  loth  and  the  beginning  of  the  nth  measure. 
If  there  are  39  measures  in  the  distribution,  the  median  point  is 
reached  by  counting  out  igi  of  the  measures ;  in  other  words,  the 
median  of  such  a  distribution  is  at  the  mid-point  of  that  fraction 
of  the  scale  assigned  to  the  20th  measure. 

The  median  step  of  a  distribution  is  the  step  which  contains 
within  it  the  median  point.  Similarly,  the  median  measure  in 
any  distribution  is  the  measure  which  contains  the  median  point. 
In  a  distribution  containing  25  measures,  the  13th  measure  is 
the  median  measure,  because  1 2  measures  are  greater  and  1 2  are 
less  than  the  13th,  while  the  13th  measure  is  itself  divided  into 
halves  by  the  median  point.  Where  a  distribution  contains  an 
even  number  of  measures,  there  is  in  reality  no  median  measure 
but  only  a  median  point  between  the  two  halves  of  the  distribu- 
tion.    Where  a  distribution  contains  an  uneven  number  of  meas- 

n  ~\~  I 
ures,  the  median  measure  is  the measurement,  at  the  mid- 

2 

point  of  which  measure  is  the  median  point  of  the  distribution. 
Much  inaccurate  calculation  has  resulted  from  misguided 
attempts  to  secure  a  median  point  with  the  formula  just  given, 
which  is  applicable  only  to  the  location  of  the  median  measure. 
It  will  be  found  much  more  advantageous  in  dealing  with  educa- 
tional statistics  to  consider  only  the  median  point,  and  to  use 

n 
only  the  -  formula  given  in  a  previous  paragraph,  for  practically 
2 

all  educational  scales  are  or  may  be  thought  of  as  continuous 
scales  rather  than  scales  composed  of  discrete  steps. 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN    283 

The  greatest  danger  to  be  guarded  against  in  considering  all 
scales  as  continuous  rather  than  discrete,  is  that  careless  thinkers 
may  refine  their  calculations  far  beyond  the  accuracy  which 
their  original  measurements  would  warrant.  One  should  be 
very  careful  not  to  make  such  unjustifiable  refinements  in  his 
statement  of  results  as  are  often  made  by  young  pupils  when 
they  multiply  the  diameter  of  a  circle,  which  has  been  measured 
only  to  the  nearest  inch,  by  3. 141 6  in  order  to  find  the  circum- 
ference. Even  in  the  ordinary  calculation  of  the  average  point 
of  a  series  of  measures  of  length,  the  amateur  is  sometimes 
tempted,  when  the  number  of  measures  in  the  series  is  not  con- 
tained an  even  number  of  times  in  the  sum  of  their  values,  to 
carry  the  quotient  out  to  a  larger  number  of  decimal  places  than 
the  original  measures  would  justify.  Final  results  should 
usually  not  be  refined  far  beyond  the  accuracy  of  the  original 
measures. 

It  is  of  utmost  importance  in  calculating  medians  and  other 
measures  of  a  distribution  to  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  signifi- 
cance of  each  step  on  the  scale.  If  the  scale  consists  of  tasks  to 
be  done  or  problems  to  be  solved,  then  ''doing  i  task  correctly'* 
means,  when  considered  as  part  of  a  continuous  scale,  anywhere 
from  doing  i.o  up  to  doing  2.0  tasks.  A  child  receives  credit  for 
''2  problems  correct"  whether  he  has  just  barely  solved  2.0 
problems  or  has  just  barely  fallen  short  of  solving  3.0  problems. 
If,  however,  the  scale  consists  of  a  series  of  productions  gradu- 
ated in  quality  from  very  poor  to  very  good,  with  which  series 
other  productions  of  the  same  sort  are  to  be  compared,  then  each 
sample  on  the  scale  stands  at  the  middle  of  its  ''step"  rather 
than  at  the  beginning. 

The  second  kind  of  scale  described  in  the  foregoing  paragraph 
may  be  designated  as  "scales  for  the  quality  of  products,"  while 
the  other  variety  may  be  called  "scales  for  magnitude  of  achieve- 
ment."    In  the  one  case,  the  child  makes  the  best  production  he 


284  HOW  TO  TEACH 

can  and  measures  its  quality  by  comparing  it  with  similar  prod- 
ucts of  known  quality  on  the  scale.  Composition,  handwriting, 
and  drawing  scales  are  good  examples  of  scales  for  quahty  of 
products.  In  the  other  case,  the  scales  are  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  child  at  the  very  beginning,  and  the  magnitude  of  his 
achievement  is  measured  by  the  difficulty  or  number  of  tasks 
accomplished  successfully  in  a  given  time.  Spelling,  arithmetic, 
reading,  language,  geography,  and  history  tests  are  examples  of 
scales  for  quantity  of  achievement. 

Scores  tend  to  be  more  accurate  on  the  scales  for  magnitude  of 
achievement,  because  the  judgment  of  the  examiner  is  likely 
to  be  more  accurate  in  deciding  whether  a  response  is  correct  or 
incorrect  than  it  is  in  deciding  how  much  quahty  a  given  product 
contains.  This  does  not  furnish  an  excuse  for  failing  to  employ 
the  quality-of-products  scales,  however,  for  the  qualities  they 
measure  are  not  measurable  in  terms  of  the  magnitude  of  tasks 
performed.  The  fact  appears,  however,  that  the  method  of 
employing  the  quality-of-products  scales  is  ''by  comparison'* 
(of  child's  production  with  samples  reproduced  on  the  scale), 
while  the  method  of  employing  the  magnitude-of-achievement 
scales  is  ''by  performance"  (of  child  on  tasks  of  known  difficulty). 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  take  one  of  the  scales  for 
quality  of  products  and  outline  the  steps  to  be  followed  in  assign- 
ing scores,  making  tabulations,  and  finding  the  medians  of  dis- 
tributions of  scores. 

When  the  Hillegas  scale  is  employed  in  measuring  the  quaUty 
of  Enghsh  composition,  it  will  be  advisable  to  assign  to  each  com- 
position the  score  of  that  sample  on  the  scale  to  which  it  is  nearest 
in  merit  or  quahty.  While  some  individuals  may  feel  able  to 
assign  values  intermediate  to  those  appearing  on  the  Hillegas 
scale,  the  majority  of  those  persons  who  use  this  scale  will  not 
thereby  obtain  a  more  accurate  result,  and  the  assignment  of 
such  intermediate  values  will  make  it  extremely  difi&cult  for  any 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN    285 

other  person  to  make  accurate  use  of  the  results.  To  be  exactly 
comparable,  values  should  be  assigned  in  exactly  the  same  manner. 

The  best  result  will  probably  be  obtained  by  having  each 
composition  rated  several  times,  and  if  possible,  by  a  number  of 
different  judges,  the  paper  being  given  each  time  that  value  on 
the  Hillegas  scale  to  which  it  seems  nearest  in  equality.  The 
final  mark  for  the  paper  should  be  the  median  score  or  step  (not 
the  median  point  or  the  average  point)  of  all  the  scores  assigned. 
For  example,  if  a  paper  is  rated  five  times,  once  as  in  step  number 
five  (5.85),  twice  as  in  step  number  six  (6.75),  and  twice  as  in 
step  number  seven  (7.72),  it  should  be  given  a  final  mark  indicat- 
ing that  it  is  a  number  six  (6.75)  paper. 

After  each  composition  has  been  assigned  a  final  mark  indicat- 
ing to  what  sample  on  the  Hillegas  scale  it  is  most  nearly  equal 
in  quality,  proceed  as  follows : 

Make  a  distribution  of  the  final  marks  given  to  the  individual 
papers,  showing  how  many  papers  were  assigned  to  the  zero  step 
on  the  scale,  how  many  to  step  number  one,  how  many  to  step 
number  two,  and  so  on  for  each  step  of  the  scale.  We  may  take 
as  an  example  the  distribution  of  scores  made  by  the  pupils  of 
the  eighth  grade  at  Butte,  Montana,  in  May,  1914. 

No.  of  papers       i       9      32       39      43       22       6       2 

P.ated  at  0123456789 

All  together  there  were  154  papers  from  the  eighth  grade,  so 
that  if  they  were  arranged  in  order  according  to  their  merit  we 

might  begin  at  the  poorest  and  count  through  77  of  them  (-  = 

■ =77)  to  find  the  median  point,  which  would  lie  between  the 

77th  and  the  78th  in  quality.  If  we  begin  with  the  i  composition 
rated  at  o  and  count  up  through  the  9  rated  at  i  and  the  32  rated 
at  2  in  the  above  distribution,  we  shall  have  counted  42.  In 
order  to  count  out  77  cases,  then,  it  will  be  necessary  to  count 
out  35  of  the  39  cases  rated  at  3. 


286 


HOW  TO  TEACH 


Now  we  know  (if  the  instructions  given  above  have  been  fol- 
lowed) that  the  compositions  rated  at  3  were  so  rated  by  virtue 
of  the  fact  that  the  judges  considered  them  nearer  in  quality  to 
the  sample  valued  at  3.69  than  to  any  other  sample  on  the  scale. 
We  should  expect,  then,  to  find  that  some  of  those  rated  at  3  were 
only  slightly  nearer  to  the  sample  valued  at  3.69  than  they  were 
to  the  sample  valued  at  2.60,  while  others  were  only  slightly 
nearer  to  3.69  than  they  were  to  4.74.  Just  how  the  39  composi- 
tions rated  on  3  were  distributed  between  these  two  extremes  we 
do  not  know,  but  the  best  single  assumption  to  make  is  that  they 
are  distributed  at  equal  intervals  on  step  3 .  Assuming,  then,  that 
the  papers  rated  at  3  are  distributed  evenly  over  that  step,  we 

shall  have  covered  .90  (^  =  .897  =  .90)  of  the  entire  step  3  by  the 

time  we  have  counted  out  35  of  the  39  papers  falling  on  this  step. 
It  now  becomes  necessary  to  examine  more  closely  just  what 
are  the  limits  of  step  3.  It  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said 
above  that  3.69  is  the  middle  step  3  and  that  step  3  extends 
downward  from  3.69  halfway  to  2.60,  and  upward  from  3.69 
halfway  to  4.74.  The  table  given  below  shows  the  range  and  the 
length  of  each  step  in  the  Hillegas  Scale  for  English  Composition. 

The  Hillegas  Scale  for  English  Composition 


Step  No. 

Value  of  Sample 

Range  of  Step 

Length  of  Step 

0 

0 

0-   .91^ 

.91 

I 

1.83 

.92-2.21 

1.30 

2 

2.60 

2.22-3.14 

.93 

3 

3-69 

3-I5-4-2I 

1.07 

4 

4-74 

4.22-5.29 

1.08 

5 

5.85 

5.30-6.30 

1. 00 

6 

6.75 

6.30-7.23 

.93 

7 

7.72 

7.24-8.05 

.81 

8 

8.38 

8.05-8.87 

.82 

9 

9-37 

8.88- 

^  The  third  decimal  place  is  omitted  in  this  table. 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF   CHILDREN    287 

From  the  above  table  we  find  that  step  3  has  a  length  of  i  .07 
units.  If  we  count  out  35  of  the  39  papers,  or,  in  other  words,  if 
we  pass  upward  into  the  step  .90  of  the  total  distance  (1.07  units), 
we  shall  arrive  at  a  point  .96  units  (.90  X  1.07  =  .96)  above  the 
lower  limit  of  step  3,  which  we  find  from  the  table  is  3.15.  Add- 
ing .96  to  3.15  gives  4. 1 1  as  the  median  point  of  this  eighth  grade 
distribution. 

The  median  and  the  percentiles  of  any  distribution  of  scores 
on  the  Hillegas  scale  may  be  determined  in  a  manner  similar 
to  that  illustrated  above,  if  the  scores  are  assigned  to  the  in- 
dividual papers  according  to  the  directions  outHned  above. 

A  similar  method  of  calculation  is  employed  in  discovering  the 
limits  within  which  the  middle  fifty  per  cent  of  the  cases  fall.  It 
often  seems  fairer  to  ask,  after  the  upper  twenty-five  per  cent  of 
the  children  who  would  probably  do  successful  work  even  with- 
out very  adequate  teaching  have  been  eliminated,  and  the  lower 
twenty-five  per  cent  who  are  possibly  so  lacking  in  capacity  that 
teaching  may  not  be  thought  to  affect  them  very  largely  have 
been  left  out  of  consideration,  what  is  the  achievement  of  the 
middle  fifty  per  cent.  To  measure  this  achievement  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  the  whole  distribution  and  to  count  off  twenty-five 
per  cent,  counting  in  from  the  upper  end,  and  then  twenty-five 
per  cent,  counting  in  from  the  lower  end  of  the  distribution.  The 
points  found  can  then  be  used  in  a  statement  in  which  the  limits 
within  which  the  middle  fifty  per  cent  of  the  cases  fall.  Using 
the  same  figures  that  are  given  above  for  scores  in  English  com- 
position, the  lower  limit  is  2.64  and  the  limit  which  marks  the 
point  above  which  the  upper  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  cases 
are  to  be  found  is  5.08.  The  limits,  therefore,  within  which  the 
middle  fifty  per  cent  of  the  cases  fall  are  from  2.64  to  5.08. 

It  is  desirable  to  measure  the  relationship  existing  between 
the  achievements  (or  other  traits)  of  groups.  In  order  to  express 
such  relationship  in  a  single  figure  the  coefficient  or  correlation  is 


288 


HOW  TO  TEACH 


used.  This  measure  appears  frequently  in  the  literature  of 
education  and  will  be  briefly  explained.  The  formula  for  finding 
the  coefficient  of  correlation  can  be  understood  from  examples  of 
its  application. 

Let  us  suppose  a  group  of  seven  individuals  whose  scores  in 
terms  of  problems  solved  correctly  and  of  words  spelled  correctly 
are  as  follows  :  ^ 


Individuals 

Measured 

No.  or 
Problems 

No.  or  Words 
Spelled  Correctly 

Individuals 

Measured 

No.  OP 
Problems 

No.  OF  Words 
Spelled  Correctly 

A 

I 

2 

E 

5 

lO 

B 

2 

4 

F 

6 

12 

C 

3 

6 

G 

7 

14 

D 

4 

8 

From  such  distributions  it  would  appear  that  as  individuals 
increase  in  achievement  in  one  field  they  increase  correspondingly 
in  the  other.  If  one  is  below  or  above  the  average  in  achieve- 
ment in  one  field,  he  is  below  or  above  and  in  the  same  degree  in 
the  other  field.  This  sort  of  positive  relationship  (going  to- 
gether) is  expressed  by  a  coefficient  of-|-i. 

The  formula  is  expressed  as  follows : 

Here     r  =  coefficient  of  correlation. 

X  =  deviations  from  average  score  in  arithmetic  (or  difference  be- 
tween score  made  and  average  score). 

y  =  deviations  from  average  score  in  spelling. 

S  =  is  the  sign  commonly  used  to  indicate  the  algebraic  sum  (i.e. 
the  difference  between  the  simi  of  the  minus  quantities  and 
the  plus  quantities). 

X -y  —  products  of  deviation  in  one  trait  multiplied  by  devia- 
tion in  the  other  trait  with  appropriate  sign. 

^  In  order  to  discover  the  relationship  which  exists  between  two  traits  which 
we  have  measured  we  would  use  many  more  than  seven  cases.  The  illustrations 
given  are  made  short  in  order  to  make  it  easy  to  follow  through  the  application  of 
the  formula. 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF   CHILDREN    289 
Applying  the  formula  we  find : 


Arith- 
metic 

X 

«« 

Spelling 

y 

y» 

x-y 

A 

I 

-3 

9 

2 

-  6 

36 

+  18 

B 

2 

—  2 

4 

4 

-  4 

16 

+    8 

C 

3 

—  I 

I 

6 

—  2 

4 

+     2 

D 

4 

0 

0 

8 

0 

E 

5 

+  1 

I 

10 

+  2 

4 

+      2 

F 

6 

+  2 

4 

12 

+  4 

16 

+    8 

G 

7 
7[28_ 

+  3 

2r^  = 

9 

28 

14 

7I56 

+  6 

sy= 

36 

+  18 

112 

'^x-y  =  +  56 

Av.  =4 

Av.  =8 

r= 


Xx-y 


+56 


(V2:jt;2)(Vs/)    (V28)(Vii2)     56 


If  instead  of  achievement  in  one  field  being  positively  related 
(going  together)  in  the  highest  possible  degree,  these  individuals 
show  the  opposite  type  of  relationship,  i.e.,  the  maximum  nega- 
tive relationship  (this  might  be  expressed  as  opposition  —  a 
place  above  the  average  in  one  achievement  going  with  a  corre- 
spondingly great  deviation  below  the  average  in  the  other  achieve- 
ment), then  our  coefficient  becomes  —  i.     Applying  the  formula : 


Arith- 
metic 

X 

«« 

Spell- 
ing 

y 

y» 

x-y 

A 

I 

-3 

9 

14 

+  6 

36 

-  18 

B 

2 

—  2 

4 

12 

+  4 

16 

-    8 

C 

3 

—  I 

2 

10 

+  2 

4 

—    2 

D 

4 

0 

8 

0 

E 

5 

+  1 

2 

6 

—  2 

4 

—    2 

F 

6 

+  2 

4 

4 

-  4 

16 

-    8 

G 

7 

+  3 
728 

^a^  = 

9 

2 

-  6 
7  56 

36 

-  18 

28 

^y^=ii2 

^x-y  =  -  56 

Av.   =4 

Av.  =8 

290 


HOW  TO  TEACH 


It  will  be  observed  that  in  this  case  each  plus  deviation  in  one 
achievement  is  accompanied  by  a  minus  deviation  for  the  other 
trait ;  hence,  all  of  the  products  of  x  and  y  are  minus  quantities. 
(A  plus  quantity  multipHed  by  a  plus  quantity  or  a  minus  quan- 
tity multiplied  by  a  minus  quantity  gives  us  a  plus  quantity  as 
the  product,  while  a  plus  quantity  multiplied  by  a  minus  quantity 
gives  us  a  minus  quantity  as  the  product.) 


So; 


56 


^-56 
56 


=  —  I. 


(Vsx2)(Vs/)      (V28)(Vii2) 

If  there  is  no  relationship  indicated  by  the  measures  of  achieve- 
ments which  we  have  found,  then  the  coefficient  of  correlation 
becomes  o.  A  distribution  of  scores  which  suggests  no  relation- 
ship is  as  follows : 


Arith- 
metic 

X 

«« 

Spklltng 

y 

^ 

x-y 

+ 

A 

2 

—   2 

4 

12 

+  4 

16 

-8+6 

B 

I 

-  3 

9 

8 

0 

0+4 

C 

4 

0 

2 

-6 

36 

0+4 

D 

5 
3 

+  I 
—  I 

I 
I 

14 

4 

+  6 
-  4 

36 
16 

-    6 

E 

-  14    +14 

¥ 

7 

+  3 

9 

6 

—  2 

4 

G 

6 

+  2 

4 

10 

+  2 

4 

7I28 

^x"  = 

28 

7(56" 

Sy=  112 

x*};  =0 

Av.  =4 

Av.  =8 

r  = 


So; 


(Vsx2)(Vs/)      (V28)(Vii2) 


=  0. 


Ill  a  similar  manner,  when  the  relationship  is  largely  positive 
as  would  be  indicated  by  a  displacement  of  each  score  in  the  series 
by  one  step  from  the  arrangement  which  gives  a  +  i .  coefficient, 
the  coefficient  will  approach  unity  in  value. 


MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN     291 


Arith- 
metic 

X 

«« 

Spelling 

y 

3* 

A 

I 

-3 

9 

4 

-4 

16 

+  12 

B 

2 

—  2 

4 

2 

-6 

36 

+  12 

C 

3 

—  I 

I 

8 

0 

+    4 

D 

4 

0 

6 

—  2 

4 

+    4 

E 

5 

+  I 

I 

12 

+  4 

16 

+  18 

F 

6 

+  2 

4 

10 

+  2 

4 

2a;'3/  =  5o 

G 

7 

+  3 

9 

14 

+  6 

36 

Av.  =4 

^x"  =28 

Av.  =  8 

5>;2=ii2 

f  = 

2^ 

)(Vsy) 

±^  =  +^8,. 

Other  illustrations  might  be  given  to  show  how  the  coefficient 
varies  from  +  i,  the  measure  of  the  highest  positive  relationship 
(going  together)  through  o  to  —  i,  the  measure  of  the  largest 
negative  relationship  (opposition).  A  relationship  between 
traits  which  we  measure  as  high  as  +.50  is  to  be  thought  of  as 
quite  significant.  It  is  seldom  that  we  get  a  positive  relationship 
as  large  as  +.50  when  we  correlate  the  achievements  of  children 
in  school  work.  A  relationship  measured  by  a  coefficient  of 
±.15  may  not  be  considered  to  indicate  any  considerable  positive 
or  negative  relationship.  The  fact  that  relationships  among  the 
achievements  of  children  in  school  subjects  vary  from  +.20  to 
+  .60  is  a  clear  indication  of  the  fact  that  abilities  of  children 
are  variable,  or,  in  other  words,  achievement  in  one  subject  does 
not  carry  with  it  an  exactly  corresponding  great  or  little  achieve- 
ment in  another  subject.  That  there  is  some  positive  relation- 
ship, i.e.,  that  able  pupils  tend  on  the  whole  to  show  all-round 
ability  and  the  less  able  or  weak  in  one  subject  tend  to  show  simi- 
lar lack  of  strength  in  other  subjects,  is  also  indicated  by  these 
positive  coefficients. 


292 


HOW  TO  TEACH 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Calculate  the  median  point  in  the  following  distribution  of  eighth- 
grade  composition  scores  on  the  Hillegas  scale. 

Quality       ....     o     18     26     37     47     58     67 
Frequency  ....  2    68     73      3 

2.  Calculate  the  median  point  in  the  following  distribution  of  third- 
grade  scores  on  the  Woody  subtraction  scale. 

No.  problems    01  2  34  56  789  ion  12  13  14  15  16  17  18  19  20  21  22  23  24 -f 
Frequency  222   3354    5    8  16  16  16  23  2021 11  22  11    2    i 

3.  Compare  statistically  the  achievements  of  the  children  in  two  eighth- 
grade  classes  whose  scores  on  the  Courtis  addition  tests  were  as  follows : 

Class  A  —  6,  5,  8,  9,  7,  10,  13,  4,  8,  7,  8,  7,  6,  8,  15,  6,  7,  o,  6,  9,  5,  8,  7,  10,  8, 
4,  7,  8,  6,  9,  5,  7,  2,  6,  8,  5,  7,  8,  7,  8,  5,  8,  10,  6,  3,  6,  8,  17,  5,  7. 

Class  B  —  10,  4,  8,  13,  II,  9,  8,  10,  7,  9,  11,  10,  18,  7,  12,  9,  10,  8,  11,  10,  12, 
9,  2,  II,  8,  10,  9,  14,  II,  7,  10,  12,  10,  6,  II,  8,  10,  9,  10,  17,  8,  II, 
9,  7,9,  11,8,  12,9,  13. 

4.  If  the  marks  received  in  algebra  and  in  geometry  by  a  group  of  high 
school  pupils  were  as  given  below,  what  relationship  is  indicated  by  the 
coefficient  of  correlation  ? 


Geometry 
Marks 

Algebra  Marks 

Geometry 
Marks 

Algebra  Marks 

I. 

80 

60 

14. 

87 

70 

2. 

68 

73 

15- 

82 

68 

3- 

65 

80 

16. 

79 

75 

4- 

96 

80 

17- 

78 

86 

5. 

59 

62 

18. 

79 

75 

6. 

75 

65 

19. 

82 

60 

7- 

90 

75 

20. 

70 

82 

8. 

86 

90 

21. 

52 

86 

9- 

52 

63 

22. 

94 

85 

10. 

70 

55 

23. 

72 

73 

II. 

63 

54 

24. 

53 

62 

12. 

85 

95 

25- 

94 

85 

13. 

93 

90 

MEASURING  THE  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHILDREN     293 

5.  Compare  the  abilities  of  the  lo-year-old  pupils  in  the  sixth  grade 
with  the  abilities  of  the  14-year-old  pupils  in  the  same  grade,  in  so  far 
as  these  abilities  are  measured  by  the  completion  of  incomplete  sentences. 

(Note:  5  =  5.0-5.999.) 

I 


No.  Sentences  Completed 


24 

23 
22 
21 
20 

19 

18 

17 
16 

15 
14 
13 
12 
II 
10 

9 
8 

7 
6 

5 
4 
3 
2 

I 
o 


1 4- Year-Olds 


2 
4 
3 

7 
10 

9 
10 
10 
10 

2 

3 
2 


294 


HOW  TO  TEACH 


6.   From  the  scores  given  here,  calculate  the  relationship  between  ability 
to  spell  and  ability  to  multiply.     Use  the  average  as  the  central  tendency. 


PUPIL 

Spelling 

MtTLTIPLICA- 
TION 

Pupil 

Spelling 

Multiplica- 
tion 

A     .    .    .    . 

9 

22 

N    .     .     .     . 

II 

25 

B 

lO 

l6 

0 

8 

25 

C 
D 

2 

6 

19 

14 

P 

Q 

17 
lO 

24 

21 

E 

13 

24 

R 

4 

16 

F 

8 

22 

S 

9 

15 

G 

ID 

17 

T 

6 

19 

H 

7 

20 

U 

12 

22 

I 

3 

21 

V 

14 

19 

J 

2 

21 

w 

8 

17 

K 

14 

20 

X 

3 

20 

L 

8 

l8 

Y 

II 

18 

M 

7 

^Z 

INDEX 


Achievements  of  children,  measuring  the, 
234;  and  examinations,  235;  in  English 
composition,  236;  in  arithmetic,  237; 
arithmetic  scale,  238;  reasoning  problems 
in  arithmetic,  242 ;  distribution  of  hand- 
writing scores,  243 ;  handwriting  scale, 
244;  spelling  scale,  263;  scale  for  Eng- 
lish composition,  265. 

Esthetic  emotions,  127;  appreciation  and 
skill,  128;  appreciation,  intellectual  factors 
in,  129. 

Aim  of  education,  i. 

Analysis  and  abstraction,  iii. 

Angell,  J.  R.,  192. 

Appreciation,  126;  types  of,  127;  passive 
attitude  in,  130;  development  in,  132, 
134;   value  of,  133;   lesson,  206. 

Associations,  organization  of,  75 ;  number 
of,  75- 

Attention,  34;  situations  arousing  response 
of,  35 ;  and  inhibition,  36 ;  breadth  of, 
36 ;  to  more  than  one  thing,  37 ;  con- 
centration of,  38,  49,  51;  span  of,  40; 
free,  41 ;  forced,  43 ;  immediate  free,  45  ; 
immediate  and  derived,  45  ;  derived,  46 ; 
forced,  47,  50;  and  habit  formation,  56; 
focaUzation  of,  61 ;   divided,  64. 

Ayres,  L.  P.,  263. 

Ballou,  F.  W.,  271. 
Bread-and-butter  aim,  3. 

Classroom  exercises,  types  of,  200. 
Coefficient  of    correlation,     calculation   of, 

288;    values  of,  291. 
Comparison  and  abstraction,  step  of,  202. 
Concentration,    of    attention,    38,    49,    51; 

habits  of,  39. 
Conduct,  moral  social,  171. 
Consciousness,  fringe  of,  38. 
Correlation,  coefficient  of,  287. 
Courtis,  S.  A.,  236. 
Culture  as  aim  of  education,  2. 
Curriculum,  omissions  from,  9. 


Deduction  lesson,  the,  203 ;  steps  in,  203. 
Deduction,  process  of,  114. 
Dewey,  John,  104,  109,  116,  171. 
Differences,  individual,  151;    sex,  153. 
Disuse,  method  of,  23. 
Drill,  59 ;  lesson,  the,  204 ;  work,  deficiency 
in,  205. 

Education,  before  school  age,  30. 

Effect,  law  of,  6i.- 

Emotions,  aesthetic,  127. 

Environment  and  individual  differences,  158. 

Examinations,  213;  limitations  of,  235. 

Exceptions,  danger  of,  62. 

Fatigue  and  habits,  57. 
Formal  discipline,  190. 

Gray,  W.  S.,  271. 

Habit  formation,  55 ;  and  attention,  56 ; 
laws  of,  59 ;  and  instinct,  60 ;  complexity 
of,  66;  and  interest,  67;  and  mistakes, 
69. 

Habits,  of  concentration,  39;  modification 
of  the  nervous  system  involved,  55 ;  and 
fatigue,  57 ;  and  will  power,  57 ;  and 
original  work,  58. 

Harmonious  development  of  aim,  2. 

Heck,  W.  H.,  192. 

Henderson,  E.  N.,  192. 

Heredity  and  individual  differences,  157. 

Hillegas,  M.  B.,  265. 

Illustrations,  use  of,  208. 

Imagery,  type  of,  93 ;  and  learning,  95 ; 
productive,  types  of,  96. 

Images,  92 ;  classified  95  ;  object  and  con- 
crete, 98. 

Imagination,  92. 

Individual  differences,  30,  151;  causes  of, 
152;  and  race  inheritance,  154;  and 
maturity,  155;  and  heredity,  157;  and 
environment,    158;     and   organization   of 


295 


296 


INDEX 


public  education,  161,  166;  in  compo- 
sition, 165;  in  arithmetic,  165;  in  pen- 
manship, 166. 

Induction  and  deduction,  differences  in,  114; 
relationship  of,  115. 

Induction,  process  of,  113. 

Inductive  lesson,  the,  201. 

Inquiry  in  school  work,  7. 

Instinctive  tendencies,  modifiabiiity  of,  22; 
inhibition  of,  23. 

Instincts,  15;  transitoriness  of ,  19;  delay ed- 
ness  of,  20;  of  physical  activity,  24;  to 
enjoy  mental  activity,  25;  of  manipula- 
tion, 26;  of  collecting,  26;  of  rivalry, 
27;  of  fighting,  27;  of  imitation,  28;  of 
gregariousness,  28 ;   of  motherliness,  28. 

Interest,  34;   an  end,  52. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  271. 

Junior  high  school,  the,  168. 

Kelly,  F.  J.,  271. 
Knowledge  aim,  3. 

Learning,  incidental,  61 ;    and  imagery,  95 ; 

curves,  63. 
Lecturing,  207;   and  appreciation,  210. 
Lesson,  the  inductive,  201. 

McMurry,  F.  M.,  220. 

Maturity  and  individual  differences,  155. 

Measurement  of  group,  277  ;  comparison  of 
seventh-grade  scores  in  composition,  278; 
comparison  of  scores  in  arithmetic,  279. 

Measuring  results  in  education,  234. 

Median,  calculation  of,  281,  285;  point, 
281 ;  step,  282  ;  measure,  282. 

Memorization,  73 ;  verbatim,  86 ;  whole- 
part  method  illustrated,  87. 

Memory,  factors  in,  74 ;  and  native  retentive- 
ness,  76;  and  recall,  77;  part  and  whole 
methods,  77;  practice  periods,  78;  imme- 
diate, 80 ;  desultory,  81 ;  rote,  80 ;  logical, 
81 ;  and  forgetting,  83 ;  permanence  of, 
83. 

Miller,  I.  E.,  104. 

Moral  conduct,  development  of,  171. 

Morality,  defined,  171;  and  conduct,  171, 
172;  and  habit,  172;  and  choice,  173; 
and  individual  opinion,  173  ;  social  nature 
of,  174;  and  training  for  citizenship,  175  ; 
and  original  nature,  175;  and  environ- 
ment,   176;     stages   of   development    in, 


177;  and  habit  formation,  178,  180; 
transition  period  in,  179;  direct  teaching 
of,  181 ;  and  classroom  work,  182 ;  and 
service  by  pupils,  183 ;  and  social  respon- 
sibility, 185;  and  school  rules,  187. 
Morgan,  C.  L.,  191. 

Openmindedness,  123. 

Original  nature,  of  children,  13;  and  racial 
inheritance,  14;  and  aim  of  education, 
16;  utilization  of,  31;  and  morality, 
175. 

Original  work  and  habits,  57. 

Payne,  Joseph,  191. 

Physical  welfare  of  children,  9. 

Play,  138;  theories  of,  140;  types  of ,  141; 
complexity  of,  142 ;  characteristics  of, 
144 ;  and  drudgery,  144 ;  and  work,  145  ; 
and  ease  of  accomplishment,  147;  and 
social  demands,  147 ;  supervision  of, 
149. 

Preparation,  steps  of,  201 . 

Presentation,  steps  of,  201 . 

Problems  as  stimulus  to  thinking,  104. 

Punishment,  23. 

Questioning,  213, 

Questions,  types  of,  214;  responses  to,  216; 
number  of,  217;   appeal  of,  218. 

Reasoning  and  thinking,  in;   technique  of, 

112. 
Recapitulation  theory,  21.. 
Recitation,  social  purpose  of,  6. 
Recitation  lesson,  the,  211. 
Repetition,  59. 
Retention,  power  of,  74. 
Review,  70. 

Review  lesson,  the,  212. 
Roark,  R.  N.,  191. 

Satisfaction,  result  of,  61. 

Scales  of  measurement,  237,  238,  242,  244, 
26s,  283. 

School  government,  participation  in,  186. 

Sex  differences,  153;  education,  188. 

Social  aim  of  education,  i,  4;  and  cur- 
riculum, 8;  and  special  types  of  schools, 
9- 

Stone,  C.  W.,  242. 

Study,  how  to,  220 ;  types  of,  221 :  and  habit 
formation,  221,  226:    and  memorization. 


INDEX 


297 


226;  and  interest,  223;  necessity  for 
aim  in,  223 ;  and  concentrated  attention, 
224;  involves  critical  attitude,  224; 
general  factors  in,  225 ;  for  appreciation, 
228;  involving  thinking,  228;  use  of 
books  in,  230;  supervised,  231. 
Substitution,  method  of,  23. 

Thinking  defined,  104. 

Thinking,  stimulation  of,  104;  and  prob- 
lematic situations,  104;  by  little  children, 
106 ;  and  habit  formation,  107  ;  essentials 
in  process  of,  107  ;  for  its  own  sake,  108 ; 
and  critical  attitude,  109 ;  laws  governing, 


118;  and  association,  119;  failure  in,  120; 

and  classroom  exercises,  121. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.,  65,  78,  119,  139,  156,  192, 

244,  268,  272. 
Thought,  imageless,  loi. 
Trabue,  M.  R.,  275. 
Training,  transfer  of,  identity  of  response, 

194 ;  probability  of,  196 ;  amount  of,  197. 
Transfer  of  training,  190. 

Will  power  and  habits,  57. 
Woody,  Clifford,  237. 
Work,  independent,  123. 
Work  and  play,  145. 


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